Evolution by natural selection - List the principles
All species produce more offspring than the resources can support
There is natural variation between individuals of a species
Individuals with advantageous genotypes will be more likely to survive & produce offspring
Over subsequent generations, the frequency of the advantageous genotype increases, leading eventually to evolution of the species
Requirements for life
A source of energy
The sun (top right) for photosynthetic organisms.
Thermal vents (bottom right) for chemosynthetic organisms.
A carbon source.
Liquid water (e.g. geysers).
Processes needed for the origin of life
1. The non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules (from primordial inorganic compounds)
2. The assembly of these organic molecules into polymers
3. The formation of polymers that can self-replicate (enabling inheritance)
4. Packaging of these molecules into membranes with an internal chemistry different from their surroundings
Primordial sea → List conditions
High volcanic activity
High UV radiation (thin atmosphere)
Lightning
Water vapour, methane, ammonia, hydrogen
Undersea thermal vents → List conditions
Life may have arisen at ancient volcanic vents which provided the necessary conditions for life:
Gases
Energy (heat)
A possible source of catalysts (metal sulfides) for life to develop.
Panspermia
Some bacteria survive similar to space conditions
Comets contain organic material
Could have delivered
Proto-cell conditions
A membrane separating the internal environment from the external environment
Storage of specific biological molecules
Ability to replicate
Ribozyme
RNA molecules have the ability to act both as a blueprint and as a catalyst
Relevant properties of RNA
1. RNA can self-replicate
RNA is able to store information in a sequence of four nucleotides (similar to DNA)
Short sequences of RNA have been able to duplicate other molecules of RNA accurately
2. RNA can act as a catalyst
Modern cells use RNA catalysts (called ribozymes) to remove introns from mRNA and help synthesise new RNA molecules
In ribosomes, rRNA is found in the catalytic site and plays a role in peptide bond formation
Earth’s history + Early life
Series of key events that occur
Evidence for life in microbial mats such as stromatolites are multilayered sheets formed by microorganisms such as archaea and bacteria.
Oxygen enrichment
Oxygen producing bacteria evolved somewhere between 2.5 and 3.0 billion years ago that eventually became photosynthesis.
Transformed planet from an environment of very little free oxygen to one of continuously increasing levels.
This led to some key events such as the production of oxidized compounds, the evolution of aerobic organisms, changing Earth's atmosphere.
Formation of an ozone layer restricted UV radiation to allow for the proliferation of a wider range of life forms.
Origins of Eukaryotes
First appeared ~2 billion years ago.
evolved from large prokaryotic cells that ingested other prokaryotes.
symbiotic relationship- endosymbiosis.
Evidence of multicellular organisms first appeared around 1.1 bya, with abundant multicellular fossils (e.g. the Ediacaran fauna) present by 0.55 bya.
Endosymbiosis
Cell which lives inside another cell with mutual benefit
Eukaryotic cells are believed to have evolved from early prokaryotes that engulfed other cells by phagocytosis
Engulfed prokaryotic cell remained undigested as it contributed new functionality to the engulfing cell (e.g. photosynthesis)
Cell lost some of its independent utility and became a supplemental organelle
Evidence in organelles:
Membranes (double membrane bound)
Antibiotics (susceptibility)
Division (mode of replication)
DNA (presence and structural composition)
Ribosomes (size)
Stromatolite
Microbial mats such as stromatolites are multilayered sheets formed by microorganisms such as archaea and bacteria.
Oxygen Enrichment
Theorised oxygen producing bacteria 2-3 billion years ago evolved through a process eventually known as photosynthesis
Transformed the planet
This led to some key events such as the production of oxidized compounds, the evolution of aerobic organisms, and the changing of the Earth's atmosphere. The subsequent formation of an ozone layer restricted UV radiation to allow for the proliferation of a wider range of life forms.
Endosymbiosis
An endosymbiont is a cell which lives inside another cell with mutual benefit
Eukaryotic cells are believed to have evolved from early prokaryotes that engulfed other cells by phagocytosis
The engulfed prokaryotic cell remained undigested as it contributed new functionality to the engulfing cell (e.g. photosynthesis)
Over generations, the engulfed cell lost some of its independent utility and became a supplemental organelle
Evidence for endosymbiosis
Membranes (double membrane bound)
Antibiotics (susceptibility)
Division (mode of replication)
DNA (presence and structural composition)
Ribosomes (size)
Direct fossil
Body fossils:
Bones, teeth, shells, leaves
Indirect fossils
Trace fossils: Footprints, tooth marks, tracks, burrows, etc.
Fossil record
The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, is referred to as the fossil record
Changes occurred in the features of living organisms (evolution) ◻
new species emerging (divergence and speciation) and extinctions
Demonstrates a change in an organism's characteristics from an ancestral form
Law of fossil succession
the age of the rock layer (strata) in which the fossil is found Sedimentary rock layers develop in chronological order, such that lower layers are older and newer strata form on top Each strata represents a variable length of time that is classified according to a geological time scale (eons, eras, periods)
This chronological sequence of complexity by which characteristics appear to develop is known as the law of fossil succession
Newer species likely evolved as a result of changes to ancestral species
Transitional fossils demonstrate the intermediary forms that occurred over the evolutionary pathway taken within a single genus
Conditions for fossilisation
Rapid burial (high pressure)
Lack of oxygen / no decomposition by bacteria
Preservation of remains (i.e. not consumed or removed by scavengers)
Biogeography
Biogeography describes the distribution of lifeforms over geographical areas, both in past and present times
Biogeography provides evidence for evolution because it suggests that closely distributed species share a common lineage
If speciation was random, the distribution of structurally similar species would be expected to be scattered
The centre of origin
Each plant and animal species originated only once. The place where this occurred is the centre of origin.
Related species are usually found in close physical proximity (supporting the concept of speciation via gradual divergence)
Fossils found in a particular region tend to closely resemble the modern organisms of the region
Homologous structure
Anatomical features that are similar in basic structure despite being used in different ways are called homologous structures
Ex
Tetrapods (organisms with 4 limbs) all have very similar bone structures in their limbs (pentadactyl), despite different functions for the limbs.
This indicates a common ancestor, followed by evolutionary changes and natural selection.
Analogous structure
Analogous structures arise from different origins, usually via convergent evolution due to similar niches/selection pressures
Vestigial structure
Vestigial structures are small remnants of organs which previously in a species’ evolutionary history were useful.
Vestigial wings in the kiwi
Vestigial pelvic bones in snakes and whales
Vestigial appendix in humans
The structures generally do not completely disappear as; the selection pressure for that to happen is not there, the genes for their presence are still active, or they still have a minor function.
Comparative embryology
During embryonic development, very different organisms show similar structures from earlier stages in their evolutionary development. This is evidence for common ancestry.
DNA hybridisation
Amino acid sequences are determined by inherited genes and differences are due to the accumulation of mutations.
The degree of similarity of these proteins is determined by the number of mutations that have occurred.
Distantly related species have had more time for differences to accumulate.
In DNA hybridisation DNA strands can be separated with sufficient heat and will reform (re-anneal) as the temperature falls
Single-stranded DNA from different species can be mixed together to identify the degree of similarity (as measured by complementary base pairs). Closely related sequences will join together (hybridise) more strongly as they share more complementary base pairs
The strength of the hybrid molecule (and degree of similarity) can be measured by how much heat is required to separate the strands
Homeobox (Hox) Genes
The basic structure of many animals is similar - for example, a human, a mouse and a fly all have a head end, a tail end, eyes and limbs.
The same group of genes provide the instructions for these body parts in all three organisms - the homeobox genes.
The actual genes that determine the shape and structure of the eye are different, but the gene to grow an eye is the same.
Artificial selection
Artificial selection is the identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals, and the steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future generations.
Selective breeding
Selective breeding is a form of artificial selection, whereby humans intervene in the breeding of species to produce desired traits in offspring
Fossil dating techniques
By examining layers of sedimentary rock, geologists developed a time scale for dividing up earth history.
Radiometric-dating techniques allowed scientists to put absolute dates on divisions in the geologic time scale.
Relative dating -- determine whether the rock is older or younger than other rocks (index fossils moment)
Absolute dating -- use radiometric dating techniques to determine how long ago the rock formed in the exact number of years
Not all rocks can be dated absolutely, so combinations of techniques are used.
Index fossils conditions
Used to define/ identify geological periods
• Distinctive features (E.g., physical characteristics such as shells)
• Widespread over large geographic areas (It’s not just found on one small island for example)
• Abundant/large numbers (increases the chance of some being fossilised when they die)
• Limited in geologic time (provides a narrow time window for comparison)
5 main fossil types
Petrified:
The word “petrified” means “turning into stone.”
Petrified fossils form when minerals replace all or part of an organism.
Water is full of dissolved minerals. It seeps through the layers of sediment to reach the dead organism. When the water evaporates, only the hardened minerals are left behind.
Mold/ cast
A mold forms when hard parts of an organism are buried in sediment, such as sand, silt, or clay.
The hard parts completely dissolve over time, leaving behind a hollow area with the organism’s shape.
A cast forms as the result of a mold.
Carbon film
When an organism dies and is buried in sediment, the materials that make up the organism break down.
Eventually, only carbon remains.
The thin layer of carbon left behind can show an organism’s delicate parts, like leaves on a plant.
Trace - Trace fossils show the activities of organisms.
Preserved remains:
Amber
Tar
Ice
Mechanisms of evolutions
Gene pools and selection
Speciation
Microevolution and macroevolution
Gene Pools
the sum of all alleles within the genes of a population of a single species.
Populations with large and diverse gene pools tend to have increased biological
diverse population often contains enough genetic variation so that there will be an availability of suitable genes that are necessary for survival.
Populations with narrow gene pools containing low diversity are more likely to suffer from reduced fitness and are more likely to become extinct.
Natural Selection
increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species
Natural selection may produce phenotypic change over time.
The direction of change will depend on the selection pressure. (ex Galapagos finches)
Sexual selection
a type of selection where the presence of a particular trait provides greater success in obtaining mates and reproducing.
These traits may relate to fitness (for example bigger, stronger males), but in some cases they could actually be counterproductive to survivability (for example bright plumage in birds that makes them more visible to predators).
It can lead to a situation referred to as non-random mating, where not all individuals have the same opportunity to pass on their alleles/genes.
Artificial selection
Artificial selection is the identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals, and the steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future generations.
Effects of selection
Phenotypic distribution:
Stabilising selection
Directional selection
Disruptive selection
Stabilising Selection
Ex human birth weight
Lower and higher birth weights aren’t rlly favourable
Directional selection
Certain phenotypes are more favourable so phenotypic expression gradually shifts to one side (ex peppered moths)
Disruptive Selection
Individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range are favoured over intermediate variants (two peaks).
Disruptive selection may occur when environmental conditions are varied or when the environmental range of an organism is large.
This can lead to speciation.
Mutations as allele source
Mutations can therefore change the frequency of existing alleles by competing with them.
Recurrent spontaneous mutations may become common in a population if they are not harmful and are not eliminated.
Genetic drift
Due to random chance, not all individuals in a gene pool pass on their genes to the next generation.
causes random changes in the gene frequencies.
Alleles may become: Lost Fixed (present in all individuals)
Greater in small populations.
Although genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution, it doesn't work to produce adaptations.
Founder effect
When a small number of individuals migrate away or become isolated from their original population they will have a small and probably non-representative sample of alleles from the parent population’s gene pool.
The colonizing population may evolve in a different direction than the parent population.
Population bottleneck
This occurs when the breeding population is reduced by 50% or more.
Population bottlenecks increase genetic drift, as the rate of drift is inversely proportional to the population size. They also decrease genetic diversity.
Co-evolution
When 2+ species affect each others evolution
Speciation
A species is a group of organisms able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
A population of one species can only evolve into more than one species if groups within the population become isolated from each other by barriers that prevent exchange of genes (gene flow).
Types of genetic isolation
Prezygotic isolation – occurs before fertilisation can occur (no offspring are produced)
Postzygotic isolation – occurs after fertilisation (offspring are either not viable or infertile)
Pre-zygotic isolating mechanisms
Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms
Allopatric speciation
Occurs when a physical barrier divides a population.
Sympatric speciation
Occurs when species within the same area become reproductively isolated, usually due to some sort of behavioural change.
Splitting vs budding
Splitting: A species could split into two populations that evolve differently until they eventually become separate species.
Budding: A small part of the species population could “bud off” from the main part and evolve rapidly to form a new species.
Divergent evolution
Divergent evolution occurs when a common ancestral species evolves into a number of new species. These species have adaptations allowing them to occupy different niches.
(adaptive radiation is a good example)
Convergent evolution
Where similar niches and selection pressures exist, species without a recent common ancestry may evolve to have similar physical characteristics, to suit the similar environment.
Phyletic Gradualism vs punctuated equilibrium
Phyletic gradualism: If the environment remains stable, organisms may undergo very little change over time and evolution is slow and gradual.
The process is considered a smooth and continuous process and any big changes are the result of the accumulation of many small changes over a long period of time.
An example might be the slow evolution of the modern horse from ancestral species.
Punctuated equilibrium: After long periods with little or no change, an isolation event separates a small population of individuals. With a different gene pool or a burst of mutations, this isolated group rapidly evolves into a separate species.
Microevolution - Include mechanisms
describes evolutionary changes that occur over a relatively short period of geologic time (such as between generations) and results in diversification within a species
Microevolution is evolution in a single population.
It works within a group of organisms that interbreed with each other and share a gene pool.
It can be detected through changes in gene frequency over time.
The mechanisms for microevolution can directly affect gene frequencies in a population. These include:
Mutations
Gene flow
Genetic drift
Selection
Macroevolution - include patterns
Macroevolution is evolution on a large scale over longer periods of time, generally above the species level.
Macroevolution encompasses larger trends and transformations in evolution, such as the origin of mammals and the radiation of flowering plants.
The basic mechanisms of microevolution - mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection - can produce macroevolutionary change if given enough time.
Some macroevolution patterns include:
Stasis - some lineages remain unchanged for long periods of time
Characteristic changes - for example gaining or losing body parts
Speciation - the rate and frequency at which branching occurs
Extinctions - this can be rare, frequent, or across many lineages (mass extinction events)
Population genetics
the study of genetic variation within populations, and involves the examination and modelling of changes in the frequencies of genes and alleles in populations over space and time.
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
A principle stating that the genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing factors.
When mating is random in a large population with no disruptive circumstances, the law predicts that both genotype and allele frequencies will remain constant because they are in equilibrium.
Disruptive factors to Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can be disturbed by a number of forces including:
Mutations - adds new alleles and is a source of variation
Natural selection - can increase or decrease certain phenotypes
Non-random mating (sexual selection) - not all individuals will get to pass their alleles on to the next generation
Genetic drift - can randomly alter allele frequencies
Gene flow - can add or remove alleles in a population
Cladistics
method of classifying organisms into groups of species called clades (from Greek ‘klados' = branch)
Clades
Each clade consists of an ancestral organism and all of its evolutionary descendants Members of a clade will possess common characteristics as a result of their shared evolutionary lineage
Clades can be organised according to branching diagrams (cladograms) in order to show evolutionary relationships
Cladograms
Constructed cladograms all typically share certain key features:
Root – The initial ancestor common to all organisms within the cladogram (incoming line shows it originates from a larger clade)
Nodes – Each node corresponds to a hypothetical common ancestor that speciated to give rise to two (or more) daughter taxa \
Outgroup – The most distantly related species in the cladogram which functions as a point of comparison and reference group
Clades – A common ancestor and all of its descendants (i.e. a node and all of its connected branches)
Phylogeny
Evolutionary history
Molecular evidence
When comparing molecular sequences, scientists may use:
Non-coding DNA
Gene sequences
Amino acid sequences
Non-coding DNA gives the best means of comparison (mutations occur more regularly) → base change in other sequences affect proteins
Amino acid sequences used to compare distantly related species
RNA/DNA used to compare closely related organisms
Molecular clocks
Genes/ protein sequences may mutate at relatively constant rates
If ROC is reliable, scientists calculate divergence time according to differences
Limitations:
Different genes change at different rates
ROC may differe between different organism groups
ROC is non-linear → changes may be reversed
Evolution of organisms - Plants
Evolved from green algae (likely from charophytes)
Why? Bc similarities in chlorophyll, chloroplasts, cell walls and DNA
Steps required for evolution
Transition from water to land
Vascular tissue
Seed evolution
Diversification of the angiosperms
Pros:
Harsh environment
Heat
Desiccation (drying out)
UV radiation
Gravity
Rewards:
CO2
Sun
No competition/ herbivores
Evolution of organisms - Animals (p1)
Features:
Multicellular organisms
Heterotrophic
No cell walls
Often mobile
Evolution
Approximately 900-1000mya single celled organisms, like choanoflagellates, formed colonies consisting of individuals
Diversified between 500-1000mya
Exoskeleton development → structural support/ protection
Vertebrates (notochords from jawless fish) → increased agility/ movement speed
Jaw → food availability / predation
Skeleton → Further increased speed/ agility
Evolution of animals - terrestrial
Adaptations required
Temperature changes
Air breathing
Structural support
Dehydration
Reproduction
UV radiation
Amphibians
likely evolved from lobe finned fish ancestor in shallow environments
Moist skin for O2 diffusion, lungs and amniotic eggs
Ectothermic (cant regulate body temp)
Reptiles
Kertain forming scales (waterproof), amniotic membrane + soft shelled eggs
ectothermic
Dinosaur extinction
Birds
Modified scales → feathers
Hollow bones
Elongated metaCARPALS
Wishbone
Sternal Keel
Air sacs + lungs
Limited organs (save weight)
Hard shelled eggs
Keratin beaks
Mammals
Early likely from nocturnal monotremes
fur (keratin)
Warm blooded
Live young (except monotremes)
Suckle young w milk
Dentition - adaptive teeth
Primate evolution + features
A primate ancestor would have had the following features:
Arboreal (tree dwelling) habit
Grasping hands and feet
Long, mobile limbs
Quadrupedal locomotion
Binocular vision
Upright sitting position
Nails instead of claws on most digits
Primates have a combination of features that are unique to their group. Their anatomy is well adapted to an arboreal (tree- dwelling) lifestyle. They possess:
Superior intelligence
Often complex social behaviour
A highly developed problem solving ability
Hominids vs hominins
hominids
The group consisting of all modern and extinct Great Apes. Anatomical features common to all hominids:
No tail
Semi-erect or fully erect posture
Broad chest, pelvis, and shoulders
Relatively long arms and mobile shoulder joints
Large brain
Examples:
Human
Chimpanzee
Gorilla
Hominins
The group consisting of modern humans, extinct human species and all our immediate ancestors. Anatomical features and habits:
Bipedal with modified feet, thigh bone, pelvis, and spine
Large cerebral cortex (forebrain)
Reduced canines (and teeth in general)
Prominent nose and chin, reduced eye ridges
Body hair short or very reduced
Highly sensitive skin
Complex social behaviour
Examples:
Australopithecus
Paranthropus
Homo
Human characteristics
Bipedalism
Larger brains
Increased intelligence
Teeth changes
Loss of body hair
Adaptations for Bipedalism
Forward pointing big toe
Transverse arch to absorb impact
Foramen magnum at base of skull
Carrying angle of femur
Strong knee joint
Lower & broader pelvis
Strong gluteal muscles
Selection pressures for bipedalism
Australopithecines
As many as four species of genus Australopithecus existed, ranging from southern Africa, through East Africa, to Chad in the north.
Australopithecus afarensis
‘Lucy’
4.0-2.7 mya
Bipedal, walked erect, but also arboreal
Human-like hands and teeth
Brain capacity of about 375-550 cc
Apelike face with a sloping forehead, a distinct ridge over the eyes, flat nose and a chinless lower jaw
Between 1.0m and 1.5m tall (sexual dimorphism)
Genus Paranthropus
Paranthropus were a group of species that exploited low-grade vegetable food sources (nuts, root tubers and seeds) resulting in (megadont) species with very large teeth.
Went extinct though
Homo Erectus
H. habilis → H. ergaster → H. erectus
2 mya - 400 000 ya
Early examples had a 850cc brain size, which increased to 1100cc
The species definitely had speech (enlarged Broca’s area, region of brain for speech, and structure of jaw & throat)
H. erectus developed tools, weapons and fire and learned to cook food
Face had massive jaws with huge molars, no chin, thick brow ridges, and a long low skull
Sturdier in build and much stronger than the modern human
Adaptations for running
Loss of hair, sweat for cooling, high SA:V
Elongated legs
Nuchal ligament (back of neck) stabilises head
Thickened joint surfaces in knees and other high impact joints
Plantar arch in foot acts as a spring
Achilles tendon
Well developed gluteus maximus
More muscles attached to the lower spine for support
Selection For Reduced Body Hair
Evolution of the Human Brain
Intelligence is not just a function of brain size: relative brain size appears to be more important (brain size compared to body size).
Modern humans have a brain volume three times larger than that predicted for an average monkey or ape with our body size.
Another important factor is the organization of the brain, evident in the development of the areas concerned with spoken language.
Two areas of the brain have become highly developed in modern humans:
Broca’s area concerned with speech
Wernicke’s area concerned with comprehension of language.
Homo neanderthalensis
350 000 - 30 000 ya
Shorter, more robust frame
Skull has low forehead, strong brow ridges and occipital bone
Broad nasal cavity (to warm air)
Barrel shaped chest and compact body conserve heat
Evidence of tools, fires, care for injured people, burial customs, music
Homo sapiens (also called Cro-Magnon)
Homo sapiens evolved in Africa - better suited for a hot climate
Moved into Europe approximately 90,000 ya
Brain is around 1400cc with a high frontal lobe/forehead
Complex tools, agriculture, music, art, abstract concepts
The first anatomically modern humans appear possibly as early as 300,000 years ago in Africa and the Middle East.
Underwent a sudden cultural revolution about 40 000 years ago, with the appearance of Cro-Magnon culture.
Using a wider range of materials, their tools kits became markedly more sophisticated.
They were skilled hunters, tool-makers and artists (cave art and music).