AP Psychology Unit 2- Cognition

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information

bottom-up processing

a way the brain makes sense of information by starting with the small details and then building up to a complete perception

top-down processing

involves interpreting sensory information based on the larger context

selective attention

the process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring others

divided attention

occurs when mental focus is on multiple tasks or ideas at once

inattentional blindness

an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else

cocktail party effect

our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment like a crowded party while tuning out other stimuli

change blindness

failure to notice large changes in one's environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

perceptual adaptation

the brain's remarkable ability to adjust how we perceive our surroundings by filtering out unnecessary or repetitive information

monocular cues

visual indicators of distanced and space that can be perceived using just one eye

linear perspective

depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

interposition

occurs when one object overlaps another

relative size

a visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger while objects further away seem smaller

relative height

we perceive objects higher in our visual field as being higher is our visual field as being further away and those that are close should appear lower

relative clarity

a depth cue where objects that are closer are perceived as clearer and more detailed while objects that are hazier or less clear seem further away

texture gradient

the way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the disantce

apparent motion

perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement

perceptual constancies

our brain's ability to see objects as unchanging even when the image on our retina changes

shape constancy

our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape even when our angle of view or distance from which we see the object changes

size constancy

our perception that an object remains the same size even when its distance from us changes causing the image on our retina

color constancy

ability to perceive colors or objects as stable under varying lighting conditions

schemas

mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us and inflence perceptions through expectations

perceptual set

tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others

Gestalt psychology

the whole is greater than the sum of its parts we perceive whole objects or figures rather than just a collection of parts

Figure ground pattern

refers to our ability to distinguish an object from its surroundings

Grouping

brains have a tendency to organize stimuli into groups in order to process the complexity of the whole

Depth perception

the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and to judge the distance of objects

Binocular depth cue

visual information that requires both eyes to see depth and distance

Retinal disparity

when each eye sees a slightly different picture bedcause of their separate positions on the face

Convergence

when our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object

overconfidence

tendency to overestimate our own knowledge

Priming

exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus

Framing

how information is presented influences decisions and perceptions

Anchoring effect

favoring the 1st inofrmation offered

Gambler’s fallacy

cognitive bias that occurs when individuals believe that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes

Sunk-cost fallacy

cognitive bias where individuals continue investing time

Algorithm

step-by-step prodcedures or formulas for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb” that simplify decision making by reudcing the cognitive burden

Representativeness heuristic

cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgements about the probability of an event under uncertainty based on how much it resembles ezisting sterotypes or typical cases

Availability heuristic

mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic

Insights

sudden and often new realization of the solutions of a problem

Mental set

tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past

Functional fixedness

cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used

Confimation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradicting evidence

Belief perserverance

tendency to hold on to beliefs even when evidence proves those beliefs to be wrong

Cognitive psychology

the study of internal and mental processes

Metacognition

thinking about one’s own thinking processes

Executive function

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts

Schema

cognitive frameworks or blueprints that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge

Assimilation

the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas

Accommodation

the cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information

Problem solving

mental process that people go through to discover

Convergent thinking

cognitive process that focuses on finding a single correct solution to a problem by applying logical steps

Divergent thinking

though process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Growth mindset

belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and effort

Fixed mindset

belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed

Wechsler Intelligence Scales

first published in 1955 and designed to measure intelligence in adults and older adolescents

Flynn effect

trend of average IQ scores increasing over generations; suggests a rise in general intelligence

Intelligence

ability to learn from experience

Intelligence quotient

numerical measure of an individual’s cognitive abilities compared to others in their age group

Mental age

level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age

Chronological age

one’s actual age

General intelligence (G)

developed by Charles Spearman

Factor analysis

people who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests

Fluid intelligence

refers to the ability to reason and think flexibly; tend to diminish with audlt aging

Crystallized intelligence

accumulation of knowledge

Multiple intelligences

theory suggests that individuals possess different types of intelligence beyond traditional measures’

Emotional intelligence

ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions

Psychometricians

focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological data

Standardization

the process of establishing consistent testing procedures

Achievement test

assess a person’s knowledge or skills ina specific area

Aptitude test

measure a person’s potential for learning or mastering specific skills or tasks in the future

Validity

the extent to which a test accurately measures what it is intended to measure

Construct validity

checks if a test really measures what its supposed to

predictive validity

shows how well a test can forecast future outcomes or beahviors

Reliability

consistency in test results over time and among different scorers

Test-retest reliability

assesses consistency by administering the same test to the same group twice

Split-half reliability

divides a test into two halves and compares scores between them

Stereotype threat

the phenomenon where individuals under perform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group

Stereotype lift

opposite of stereotype threat; occurs when individuals form sterotypically advantaged groups perfor better on tests due to positive expectations associated with their group

Iconic memory

type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images

Echoic memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information; holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli

Haptic memory

branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch

Short-term memory

temporarily holds a small amount of information typically for about 15-30 seconds

Long-term memory

stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely withy a virtually unlimited capacity

Working memory

form of short term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information; combines short term and long term memories

Central executive

control center of working memory; manages attention coordinates other memory components and integrates information from out sense and long term memory

Phonological loop

component of working memory responsible for processing and strong verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

component of working memory that handles visual and spacial information

Long-term potentiation

long-lasting increase in signal transmissions between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation

Memory

persistence of learning over time; it is information that has been acquired and stored and can be retrieved

Information processing model

model of memory; compares out mind to a computer in a series of three stages

Encoding

1st stage of memory where information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain

Storage

process of retaining information in the brain over time

Retrieval

process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness

Recognition

identifying information after experiencing it again

Relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a 2nd or later time

Multi-store model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes sensory memory

Sensory memory

initial stage of memory