AP Biology Chapters 8&9
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56 Terms
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Metabolism
The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways.
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Catabolic (catabolic pathway)
A metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones.
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Anabolic (anabolic pathway)
A metabolic pathway that consumes energy to build complex molecules from simpler compounds.
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Bioenergetics
The study of how energy flows through living organisms.
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Energy
The capacity to cause change or to do work.
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Kinetic energy
Energy associated with the motion of objects.
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Thermal energy (heat)
The kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules.
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Potential energy
Energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure.
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Chemical energy
Potential energy stored in the arrangement of atoms within molecules.
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Entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
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Thermodynamics
The study of energy transformations.
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Free energy (G)
Energy available to do work when temperature and pressure are constant.
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Exergonic reaction
A chemical reaction that releases free energy (ΔG < 0) and is spontaneous.
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Endergonic reaction
A chemical reaction that absorbs free energy (ΔG > 0) and is nonspontaneous.
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ATP / ADP
ATP is the cell’s primary energy currency; ADP is the lower-energy form produced when ATP loses a phosphate group.
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Energy coupling
The use of energy released from exergonic reactions to drive endergonic reactions.
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Phosphorylation
The transfer of a phosphate group to a molecule, often from ATP.
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Enzyme
A biological catalyst, usually a protein, that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed.
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Catalyst
A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being altered.
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Substrate
The reactant an enzyme acts on.
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Activation energy
The initial energy required to start a chemical reaction.
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Enzyme–substrate complex
A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds its substrate.
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Active site
The specific region of an enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction occurs.
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Induced fit
A change in enzyme shape caused by substrate binding that enhances catalysis.
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Cofactor
A nonprotein helper required for enzyme activity, often inorganic.
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Coenzyme
An organic cofactor, often derived from vitamins.
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Competitive inhibition
Inhibition in which a molecule competes with the substrate for the enzyme’s active site.
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Noncompetitive inhibition
Inhibition in which a molecule binds to a site other than the active site, altering enzyme function.
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Allosteric regulation
Regulation of an enzyme by binding of a regulatory molecule at a site other than the active site, causing a conformational change.
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Enthalpy (H)
The total energy of a system.
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Spontaneous process
A process that occurs without additional energy input (ΔG < 0).
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Work
Energy transfer that results in motion, chemical change, or transport across membranes.
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Fermentation
An anaerobic process that allows glycolysis to continue by regenerating NAD⁺.
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Aerobic respiration
Cellular respiration that requires oxygen.
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Cellular respiration
The process by which cells harvest energy from organic compounds to produce ATP.
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Redox reaction
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons.
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Oxidation
Loss of electrons.
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Reduction
Gain of electrons.
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NAD⁺ / NADH
An electron carrier that cycles between oxidized (NAD⁺) and reduced (NADH) forms.
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Electron transport chain
A series of membrane-bound proteins that transfer electrons and pump protons to create a gradient.
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Glycolysis
The breakdown of glucose into two pyruvate molecules in the cytosol, producing ATP and NADH.
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Pyruvate oxidation
The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, linking glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
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Citric acid cycle
A cyclic pathway that oxidizes acetyl CoA, producing NADH, FADH₂, and ATP.
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Oxidative phosphorylation
ATP production driven by chemiosmosis using energy from the electron transport chain.
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Substrate-level phosphorylation
ATP synthesis by direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP.
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Acetyl CoA
A two-carbon molecule that enters the citric acid cycle.
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FAD / FADH₂
An electron carrier that transfers electrons to the electron transport chain.
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Cytochromes
Proteins in the electron transport chain that contain heme groups and transfer electrons.
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ATP synthase
An enzyme that synthesizes ATP using the proton gradient across a membrane.
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Chemiosmosis
The movement of protons across a membrane down their electrochemical gradient to drive ATP synthesis.
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Proton-motive force
The potential energy stored in a proton gradient.
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Electrochemical gradient
A gradient formed by differences in proton concentration and charge across a membrane.
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Alcohol fermentation
Fermentation in which pyruvate is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
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Lactic acid fermentation
Fermentation in which pyruvate is converted to lactate.
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Obligate anaerobes
Organisms that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen.
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Facultative anaerobes
Organisms that can survive with or without oxygen, switching metabolic pathways as needed.
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