Carbohydrates

what are the four types of carbon based macromolecules?

• carbohydrates

• lipids

• proteins

• nucelic acids

why is life carbon based?

because all of the large macromolecules are carbon based

what are covalent bonds

sharing of electrons between two atoms

what do carbohydrates contain

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

give examples of carbohydrates

sugars, starches like flour bread and past, cellulose and chitin

what are carb functions?

• they are immediate energy sources

• energy storage

• structural materials

Sugars are…

• immediate energy sources

• the simplest carbs

• monossacchraides and dissacharies

monosaccharides

• C and H20

• can be aldose or keytose based on position of carbonyl group

• polar

• conatin hydroxyl (-oH) groups

what is a hydroxyl group

• functional group with one hydrogen and one oxygen (-OH)

what is a carbonal group?

• double bond between carbon and oxygen

describe aldohydes + example

• have carbonal group at end

• glucose and galactose

• aldose sugar

describe ketose base and examples

carbonal group in the middle

• fructose

• ketose sugars

in solutions what structures do sugars form

• ring stuctures

what is a disaccharide

two monosacharides joined by glycosidic linkage

glycosidic linkage

links between two sugar molecules

what treactions causes glycosidic lunkage and explain

condensation

• 1 glucose + 1 glucose = dissacharide and water

• they join together at the two OH and h20 is given off and the molecule shares the remaining O

what makes a sugar alpha or beta

• in ring sturcture

• the orientation of the hydroxyl group

• if it is down it is alpha (opposite side from CH2OH group)

• if it is up or the same side it is beta

what is 1-4 glycosidic linkage

• between number 1 carbon of one monomer and number 4 carob of the other

what reactions break down polyssachrides

• hydrolosis reactions

• add water to break glycosidic linkage

what are storgae polysscahrides in plants

• starch

  • found in the chloroplasts

  • low solubilty which makes it store

  • functional groups create bonds which makes it more stable

  • made of glucose

  • found in seeds and roots

  • coiled structure

what are the two types of starch

• amylose (basic and 1-4 glycosidic bonds)

• amylopectin (alpha 1-4 links but with some alpha 1-6 links which makes branches)

what is the storage polysaccharide in animals

• glycogen

• found in the liver and the muscles

• lots of branches

• its a polymer of many carbon rings of glucose

• coiled structure

• liber uses it to mainatin glucose levels and muscles use it for energy for muscle contraction

what are structural polysaccharides + describe cellulose

• cellulose

• makes up plant cell walls

• ghains of glucose molecules made up of 1-4 links but every second glucose is upside down

• humans cant break it down

• chains lie cluse together held by hydrogen bonds from O to H on chains

• straight chain

• beta glucose molecules

what is chitin

• found in the exoskeleton of arthropods (insects) and fungilethery and becomes hard when touched with calcium carbonate

• made of glucose units and nitrogen

how many bonds can carbon atoms form

4

the longer the chain of carbon carbom bonds…

the more stable the moleucle

what is the basis of nuecleic acids and proteins

double or single bonds of carbon with other carbon or non metalic elements

what makes up macromolecules

monomers that can link to form polymers

describe the hydrolysis of dissachride ….

breaks to glucose and fructose. the -OH group of the water molecule attahces to one of the monosscarhides while the -H arrahes to the other, which breaks the glycosidic bond

<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/X7GZ8Jo9YQQ?si=25i7mSlRrHX1BS1s" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" allowfullscreen></iframe>

why is glucose ppolar

because it has several -OH functional groups

• the O atom in the glucose ring has a partial negative charge so the carbon hydrogen (CH) groups in it are partial positive

How does glucose dissolve in water

• the -OH group of glucose makes a hydrogen bond with water

what is oxidation

the loss of electrons from a molecule

how is glucose oxidized

• it loses electrons to oxygen and so it produces water and CO2 and energy is released to make ATP

what do hydrogen bonds do in cellulose

make stong and stable lattice tsructure of chains that are cross linked

why is cellulose necessary for the cell wall of plants

plants came withstand the forces of osmosis with it, or else they would collapse under their own weight

what is the role of glycoproteins in cell-cell recognition

• they have carbs attached to them

• they can be attached to amino acid residues in aprrotein or form branched linear chains from surface

• they act as markers on the cell surface whuch means they identiy each other and foreign cells

• can receive signals from cells (insluin binds to recpetor to give more glucose in cell)

• ligans: bind to recpetors on cells to initate signalling pathways

• structural supprot

ABO boold groups are an exaple of

glycoproteins found of the surface or red blood cells