Psychology Chapter Six

Phobia

Irrational fears of specific objects or situations

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Was described in 1903 by Ivan Pavlov.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian Physiologist who did Nobel Prize winning research on digestion. He studied the digestive processes of dogs and is commonly known for this experiment.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.

Elicited

Drawn forth; automatic or involuntary.

Trial

In terms of classical conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.

Evaluative Conditioning

Changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. Involves the acquisition of likes and dislikes.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning a new response tendency.

Stimulus Contiguity

Stimuli are contiguous if they occur together in time and space.

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

Renewal Effect

If a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place.

Stimulus Generalization

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to a new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences.

Reinforcement

Occurs when an event following a response increased an organism’s tendency to make that response.

Skinner Box

Is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

Emit

To send forth.

Reinforcement Contingencies

Are the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.

Cumulative Recorder

Creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

Acquisition

The formation of a new response tendency in operant conditioning.

Shaping

The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

Gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement.

Resistance to Extinction

An organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has been terminated.

Discriminative Stimuli

Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences of a response.

Primary Reinforcers

Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.

Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcers

Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.

Schedule of Reinforcement

A specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.

Continuous Reinforcement

Occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time.

Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule

The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of non-reinforced responses. Example; A salesperson receives a bonus for every fourth gym membership sold.

Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule

The reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses. Example; A slot machine in a casino pays off once every six tries on the average, the concentration of wins and losses may vary.

Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule

The reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed. Example; you can get clean clothes out of your washing machine every 35 minutes.

Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule

The reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. Example; a person repeatedly dials a busy phone number (getting through is the reinforcer)

Positive Reinforcement

Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement

Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.

Escape Learning

An organism acquires a response that decreased or ends some aversive stimulation.

Avoidance Learning

An organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring.

Punishment

Occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.

Preparedness

Involves species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others.

Latent Learning

Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs.

Observational Learning

When an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

Four Key Processes of Observational Learning

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation.

Attention

To learn through observation, you must pay attention to another person’s behavior and its consequences.

Retention

You must be able to store a mental representation of what you have witnessed in your memory so you can recall it in future time.

Reproduction

Enacting a modeled response depends on your ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental images into overt behavior.

Motivation

You are unlikely to reproduce an observed response unless you are motivated to do so. Depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe the response is likely to pay off for you.

Behavior Modification

A systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of principles of conditioning.