ap gov unit 2 vocab

lame duck

president who has not been reelected and is on way out of office

one person-one vote principle

The principle that each voter should have equal weight in elections, ensuring that everyone's vote counts equally.

advice and consent power

power of Senate to approve all presidential appointments

apportionment

distribution based on population figures

Baker v Carr

A landmark Supreme Court case that addressed the issue of legislative redistricting and the one person-one vote principle, establishing that federal courts can intervene in and decide redistricting cases.

coalitions

alliances of different groups that work together to achieve a common goal in politics.

conference committee

A temporary committee formed to resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

A federal agency that provides economic data and analysis to Congress, particularly regarding budgetary and fiscal issues.

constituents

the individuals that elected officials represent in their respective districts or states.

delegate model

A theory of representative democracy where lawmakers vote according to the preferences of their constituents rather than their own personal beliefs.

discharge petition

means of bringing a bill out of committee and to the floor for consideration without a report from the committee

divided government

Legislative and Executive branch are controlled by different political parties

enumerated powers

powers defined in the Constitution

filibuster

an extended debate in the Senate aimed at delaying or preventing a vote on a bill.

General Accountability Office (GAO)

A government agency that provides auditing, evaluation, and investigative services for Congress

gerrymandering

redistricting boundaries to favor one party/class

gridlock

a situation where no progress can be made because opposing parties are in stalemate

House Majority Leader

Commander of the floor in the House, represents dominant party on House floor

House Minority Leader

Leader and chief spokesperson of party in House with less power

House of Representatives

part of Congress with 435 members based on population

implied powers

inferred powers from those enumerated in Constitution

incumbency

the holding of an office or the period during which one is held

joint committees

committee with both Houses involved, to address matters of mutual interest, conduct research, and provide administrative coordination between the two chambers

logrolling

the practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics by reciprocal voting for each other's proposed legislation

mandatory spending

federal spending required by existing laws, such as for entitlement programs like Social Security and Medicare, and does not require annual congressional approval

omnibus bill

proposed law that covers a number of diverse or unrelated topics

party caucus (conference)

meetings of members of a political party or faction to discuss and decide on policies, strategies, and candidate selections

politico model

lawmakers act as delegates on highly public issues while taking on the role of trustees on more complex or less visible matters

pork-barrel spending

use of government funds for local projects that are intended to bring money and benefits to a specific district, with the primary goal of pleasing constituents and securing votes

power of the purse

power to tax

President of the Senate

VP, presides over Senate proceedings, tie-breaker

President Pro Tempore

Presides over Senate in absence of VP

racial gerrymandering

manipulation of voting district boundaries to weaken or dilute the voting power of a racial or ethnic group

redistricting

the action or process of dividing or organizing an area into new political districts

rider

amendment or provision added to a bill that may be unrelated to the bill's main purpose

rules committee

a standing committee of the House of Representatives that provides special rules under which specific bills can be debated, amended, and considered by the House

safe districts

districts where a party is guaranteed votes

select (special) committees

a temporary legislative committee formed to investigate or consider a specific issue or matter, often for a limited duration

Senate

House of Congress with 100 members, focused more on international and presidential affairs

Senate Majority Leader

Represents and directs activity of dominant party in Senate

Senate Minority Leader

Represents and directs activity of weaker party in Senate

17th Amendment (1913)

senators are to be elected directly by popular vote within each state

Shaw v Reno (1993)

Landmark United States Supreme Court case in the area of redistricting and racial gerrymandering. After the 1990 census, North Carolina qualified to have a 12th district and drew it in a distinct snake-like manner to create a "majority-minority" Black district

Speaker of the House

presiding officer, the de facto leader of the majority party, and the administrative head of the chamber

sponsor

member of Congress who formally introduces a bill or resolution into their respective chamber

standing committee

a permanent legislative committee that handles bills and issues in specific subject areas

swing (marginal) district

district where outcome of election is not clear

trustee model

an elected representative uses their own judgment and expertise to make decisions that they believe are in the long-term best interest of the nation or district, even if those decisions go against the expressed wishes or opinions of their constituents

unified government

Congress and the President are of the same political party

War Powers Resolution (1973)

limit the U.S. president's ability to commit the country to armed conflict without the consent of Congress; The President must inform Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops into hostile situations or where hostilities are likely

way and means committee

committee responsible for overseeing taxation and revenue-raising measures. This committee plays a critical role in shaping economic policy, as it has jurisdiction over all tax-related legislation, trade agreements, and social welfare programs like Social Security and Medicare

whips

party official in the U.S. Congress responsible for ensuring party discipline

ambassadors

an accredited diplomat sent by a country as its official representative to a foreign country

bully pulpit

a public office or position of authority that provides its occupant with an outstanding opportunity to speak out on any issue

Cabinet

high-ranking executive branch officials who advise the president; composed of the heads of the 15 federal executive departments, such as the secretaries of State, Defense, and Treasury. 

Chief of Staff

senior aide who manages the operations of the White House staff and serves as a key advisor to the President of the United States

Commander-in-Chief

role of the president as the supreme commander of the U.S. military forces

Federalist No. 70

defends the creation of a unitary executive branch led by a single, powerful president. Hamilton argues that this structure is essential for effective governance, providing the energy, decisiveness, and accountability necessary for a stable republic

executive agreement

international agreement entered into by the President of the United States with a foreign nation, which does not require Senate ratification.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

group of agencies and staff that directly support and advise the president in managing the executive branch

executive order

directive issued by the president that manages operations of the federal government and carries the force of law

executive privilege

implied power of the president and other high-ranking executive officials to withhold certain confidential information from Congress and the courts

formal powers

those explicit powers granted to the president under Article II of the U.S. Constitution

going public

a presidential strategy where the president appeals directly to the people for support, hoping to pressure Congress into enacting desired legislation

imperial presidency

president's significant expansion of power beyond traditional constitutional limits, primarily in foreign policy and national security

inherent powers

those authorities not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution but are considered to be necessary for a national government or a particular branch to function, derived from the very nature of sovereignty and existence

joint chiefs of staff

body of senior military leaders that serves as the principal military advisory group to the President of the United States, the Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council. 

line-item veto

special executive power that allows a president or governor to reject specific provisions of a bill while approving the rest; deemed unconstitutional for president

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

helps the President formulate and implement the federal budget, coordinates agency activities, reviews proposed legislation and regulations to align with the administration's policies, and oversees government management to ensure efficiency and responsiveness to the President's agenda

pardon

executive action by the President that forgives an individual for a federal crime

pocket veto

a legislative maneuver that allows the President to kill a bill by taking no action on it before Congress has adjourned

policy agenda

set of issues, problems, or subjects that receive serious attention from government officials and policymakers

signing statement

written pronouncement issued by the President when signing a bill into law, declaring how legislation will be interpreted and implemented by the executive branch

State of the Union

annual speech delivered by the president to a joint session of Congress, based on a constitutional mandate to report on the state of the country and propose a legislative agenda

stewardship theory

a model for presidential power, articulated by presidents like Theodore Roosevelt, that argues the president possesses broad, potentially undefined authority to act in the best interest of the nation, limited only by explicit prohibitions in the Constitution or la

22nd Amendment (1951)

establishes term limits for the U.S. Presidency, limiting a president to two elected terms

25th Amendment (1967)

clarifies presidential succession and addresses presidential disability by outlining procedures for the Vice President to become President or Acting President if the President dies, resigns, is removed from office, or becomes incapacitated

U.S. v Nixon (1974)

landmark Supreme Court case from 1974 that addressed the limits of presidential power and the principle of executive privilege. The case arose during the Watergate scandal when President Nixon refused to release tape recordings requested by a congressional subpoena, claiming they were protected by executive privilege. The Court ultimately ruled that no person, including the president, is above the law, reinforcing the legitimacy of the judicial branch as a check on executive authority.

veto

president's constitutional power to reject a bill passed by Congress

amicus curiae

an individual or organization that is not a party to a court case but files a legal brief to offer additional information, perspectives, or arguments to the court with aim to influence the court's decision by providing expert opinions, raising points not covered by the formal parties, and highlighting the broader societal, economic, or legal implications of a ruling

appellate jurisdiction

authority of a court to review decisions made by a lower court and to determine if legal errors were made

attorney general

chief legal officer of the federal government and head of the Department of Justice, responsible for enforcing federal laws and representing the United States in legal matters

binding precedent

a legal principle established by a higher court decision, such as the Supreme Court, that lower courts within its jurisdiction must follow when ruling on similar cases

brief

concise legal documents submitted to a court that outline the arguments, relevant laws, and facts pertaining to a case.

concurring opinion

written statement by a justice that agrees with the outcome of a court case but offers different reasoning or emphasizes different aspects of the case than the majority opinion

dissenting opinion

written legal opinion by an appellate judge or Supreme Court Justice who disagrees with the majority decision in a particular case

Federalist No. 78

essay written by Alexander Hamilton that discusses the role of the judiciary in the new American government, emphasizing its independence and the importance of judicial review. This essay argues that the judiciary should be the weakest of the three branches of government, as it has no influence over either the sword or the purse, but instead serves as a guardian of the Constitution by interpreting laws and ensuring they align with constitutional principles.

judicial activism

practice where judges take an active role in interpreting the law and making decisions that can create new legal precedents or change existing ones

judicial implementation

process by which a court's decision is translated into actual public policy and affects behavior, requiring three key steps: the implementing population must understand the decision, they must act to follow it, and the affected population (consumers) must be aware of the rights and changes granted or denied to them by the ruling. 

judicial review

The power of courts to examine and invalidate legislation or executive actions that are contrary to the Constitution.

Judiciary Act of 1789

jurisdiction

legal authority or power of a court to hear and decide a case

living constructionist

views the U.S. Constitution as a dynamic and flexible document that evolves with society's changing needs and values

majority opinion

the written explanation for a court's final decision in a case, agreed to by more than half of the judges or justices hearing the case

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

a landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, empowering the judiciary to declare laws and actions by the legislative and executive branches unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution

original jurisdiction

court's authority to hear a case for the first time, conducting the trial and establishing facts and evidence

precendent

previous court decision that serves as a rule or guide for deciding subsequent cases with similar legal issues or facts

rule of four

the Supreme Court's practice that at least four of the nine justices must vote to grant a writ of certiorari (cert) for a case to be heard by the Court

senatorial courtesy

unwritten, informal custom where the Senate will not confirm a presidential nominee if the nominee is opposed by the senior senator of the president's own party from the nominee's home state

solicitor general

high-ranking official in the Department of Justice responsible for representing the federal government's legal interests before the U.S. Supreme Court