Psychology Unit 9

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

teratogens

(literally, “monster maker”) agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

preoperational stage

in piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

conservation

the principle (which piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

egocentrism

in piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

autism spectrum disorder

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

according to erik erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “who am i?”

authoritarian parents

parents who impose rules and expect obedience: “don’t interrupt.” “keep your room clean.” “don’t stay out late or you’ll be grounded.” “why? because i said so”

permissive parents

parents who submit to their children’s desires. they make few demands and use little punishment

authoritative parents

parents who are both demanding and responsive. they exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reasons for rules. and, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions

gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender identity

our sense of being male or female

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

preconventional morality

the first of kohlberg’s stages of moral development, lasting approx. until age 9. self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

conventional morality

the second of kohlberg’s stages of moral development, starting in early adolescence. children uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order

postconventional morality

the third of kohlberg’s stages of moral development, lasting from adolescence to throughout adulthood. actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

identity

our sense of self; according to erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am i?” that comes from our group memberships

trust vs. mistrust

the first of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

the second of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

initiative vs. guilt

the third of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent

competence vs. inferiority

the fourth of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

identity vs. role confusion

the fifth of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

intimacy vs. isolation

the sixth of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

generativity vs. stagnation

the seventh of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. in middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

integrity vs. despair

the eighth and final of erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

intimacy

in erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

emerging adulthood

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid- twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women. females have two, males have one. one of this chromosome from each parent produces a female child

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. both males and females have it, but the additional amount in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

menarche

the first menstrual period

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). this infection depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation)

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement