metalanguage and how to discuss it

Modal verbs (e.g. must, should, may)

High modality = formality, authority; Conative function; Addresses negative face needs (esp. with low modality); Constructs an authoritative identity.

Discourse particles (e.g. like, you know)

Informal register; Phatic function; Maintains conversation; Builds rapport; Positive face strategies; Casual identity.

Nominalisation (e.g. “the implementation of…”)

Supports formality; Removes agency for objectivity; Creates distance; Bureaucratic or academic tone; Referential function.

Prosodic features (stress, pitch, intonation)

Emphasises key words or emotion; Shapes mood or speaker attitude; Manages turn-taking; Supports emotive and persuasive functions.

Contractions (e.g. don’t, won’t, I’m)

Informal register; Builds closeness; Suits casual tenor; Reflects spoken/spontaneous speech.

Imperatives (e.g. sign here, go now)

Conative function; Shows authority or urgency; Power/control over audience; Direct or commanding tone.

Listing (e.g. students, teachers, parents)

Creates structure and clarity; Enhances formality; Inclusive tone; Supports referential or persuasive function.

Positive politeness strategies (e.g. thanks, compliments)

Appeals to positive face; Builds rapport; Collaborative or friendly tenor; Casual or supportive tone.

Negative politeness strategies (e.g. would you mind…)

Softens imposition; Respects autonomy (negative face); Deferential or formal tone; Maintains social distance.

Adjacency pairs (e.g. greeting–greeting, Q–A)

Reflect spoken mode; Cooperative interaction; Phatic function; Builds social cohesion.

Repetition (e.g. They engage deeply. They engage deeply.)

Emphasises key message; Aids memorability; Reinforces emotion; May support poetic or persuasive function.

Inclusive language (e.g. we, our, let’s)

Reduces distance; Builds solidarity; Conative function (invites action); Collaborative tone.

Technical or specialised lexicon

Establishes expertise or authority; Supports referential function; May formalise tone or restrict accessibility.

Hedging (e.g. maybe, I think, sort of)

Reduces certainty; Protects negative face; Tentative or polite tone; Reduces assertiveness.

Overt markers of attitude (e.g. fortunately, sadly)

Reveals speaker’s evaluation; Emotive function; Aligns audience with stance; Subjective tone.

Non-fluency features (e.g. um, false starts, pauses)

Spoken mode; Reflects spontaneity or nervousness; Casual/informal tone; Natural speech patterns.

Syntactic parallelism (e.g. we came, we saw, we conquered)

Reinforces rhythm and structure; Persuasive or poetic function; Often seen in speeches or formal rhetoric.