Untitled Flashcards Set

Hippocampus

A brain structure critical for memory formation and spatial navigation. Example: If the hippocampus is damaged (as in Alzheimer’s), a person may struggle to form new memories.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter linked to reward, pleasure, and motivation. Example: Eating chocolate releases dopamine, making you feel good.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter regulating mood, sleep, and appetite. Example: Low serotonin levels are associated with depression (SSRIs like Prozac increase serotonin).

Neurotransmitters/Neurons

Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons (nerve cells). Example: When you touch something hot, neurons send pain signals via neurotransmitters like glutamate.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Includes the brain and spinal cord; processes information and sends responses. Example: If you step on a nail, your spinal cord sends a reflex signal to move your foot before the brain feels pain.

Plasticity

The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize after injury. Example: After a stroke, unaffected brain areas may take over functions of damaged regions.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands (e.g., adrenaline, cortisol). Example: Adrenaline increases heart rate during a scary movie.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers and mood boosters. Example: A 'runner’s high' after intense exercise is due to endorphin release.

Brain Scans (EEG & fMRI)

EEG measures electrical activity in the brain; fMRI shows brain activity via blood flow. Example: EEG is used in sleep studies, while fMRI is used to see which areas light up during tasks.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for decision-making, reasoning, and personality. Example: Phineas Gage’s personality changed after a rod damaged his frontal lobe.

Circadian Rhythm

The body’s 24-hour internal clock. Example: Feeling sleepy at night.

Consciousness

Awareness of thoughts and surroundings. Example: Altered by sleep, drugs, meditation.

Transduction

Converting sensory stimuli (light, sound) into neural signals. Example: The eye transduces light into electrical signals for the brain to process.

Retina

The light-sensitive layer in the eye containing rods (night vision) and cones (color vision). Example: If cones are damaged, color blindness occurs.

Semicircular Canals (Vestibular System)

Fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that control balance. Example: Spinning too fast can make you dizzy because the fluid keeps moving.

Kinesthesis

Sense of body position/movement. Example: Walking in the dark.

Vestibular Sense

Balance and spatial orientation. Example: Feeling off-balance on a boat.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synaptic connections through repeated use; basis of learning. Example: Practicing piano improves skill because neurons fire more efficiently.

Encoding

The process of inputting information into memory. Example: Repeating a phone number to remember it.

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units. Example: Remembering a phone number as '555-867-5309' instead of 10 separate digits.

Retrieval (Recall vs. Recognition)

Recall is retrieving info without cues while recognition is identifying info with cues. Example: Recall is like essay questions, recognition is like multiple-choice tests.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge to interpret stimuli. Example: Reading a word despite typos.

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing from sensory input. Example: Seeing individual letters first.

Schema

Mental frameworks that organize information. Example: A 'restaurant schema' includes menus, waiters, and tables.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts. Example: Assuming a well-dressed person is trustworthy (representativeness heuristic).

Cognitive Bias (Confirmation Bias)

Favoring information that confirms preexisting beliefs. Example: Only reading news that aligns with your political views.

Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities can improve with effort; contrasts with fixed mindset. Example: A student who fails but says, 'I’ll study harder next time.'

Metacognition

Thinking about one’s own thinking. Example: Realizing you learn better with flashcards than lectures.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over genes (nature) vs. environment (nurture) in development. Example: Intelligence is influenced by both genetics and education.

Teratogens

Harmful agents that cause birth defects. Example: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome results from alcohol exposure in the womb.

Cross-Sectional Studies

Compares different age groups at one time. Example: Observing children of various ages at once.

Longitudinal Studies

Tracks the same group over years. Example: Following a single cohort of children into adulthood.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Learning by association (neutral stimulus leads to response). Example: A dog salivates at the sound of a bell after pairing it with food.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Learning via rewards/punishments. Example: A rat presses a lever for food (positive reinforcement).

Parenting Styles (Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglectful)

Authoritative: High warmth, high rules; Authoritarian: Strict, low warmth. Example: Authoritative parenting leads to the best outcomes.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Learning by observing others. Example: A child mimics aggressive behavior seen on TV.

Locus of Control (Internal vs. External)

Internal: Belief that you control outcomes; External: Blame outside forces. Example: 'I failed because I didn’t study' (internal) vs. 'The test was unfair' (external).

Social Loafing

Exerting less effort in a group than alone. Example: Group projects where some members slack off.

Attribution (Fundamental Attribution Error)

Overemphasizing personality over situation when judging others. Example: Assuming a rude waiter is a jerk without considering their stress.

Norms & Conformity (Asch Experiment)

Adjusting behavior to match group standards. Example: Saying an incorrect line length because others did.

Social Trap

Individuals act in self-interest, harming the group. Example: Overfishing leads to resource depletion.

DSM-5

Manual for diagnosing mental disorders. Example: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) requires 5+ symptoms for 2+ weeks.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS - Selye)

Stages of stress response: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion.

Fight, Flight, Freeze

Automatic stress responses. Example: Freezing during a robbery instead of fighting or running.

Experimental vs. Correlational

Experimental: Manipulates variables to find cause-effect; Correlational: Measures relationships. Example: Drug trials (experimental) vs. ice cream sales & drowning (correlational).

Informed Consent

Participants must know risks before agreeing. Example: Explaining study risks before participation.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose after the study. Example: Informing participants about findings post-experiment.