Untitled Flashcards Set

WHEN CREATING THE FLASHCARDS INCLUDE THE EXAMPLES ALONGSIDE THE DEFINITIONS.

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### Neuroscience & Biology

#### 1. Hippocampus

Definition: A brain structure critical for memory formation and spatial navigation.

Example: If the hippocampus is damaged (as in Alzheimer’s), a person may struggle to form new memories.

#### 2. Dopamine

Definition: A neurotransmitter linked to reward, pleasure, and motivation.

Example: Eating chocolate releases dopamine, making you feel good.

#### 3. Serotonin

Definition: A neurotransmitter regulating mood, sleep, and appetite.

Example: Low serotonin levels are associated with depression (SSRIs like Prozac increase serotonin).

#### 4. Neurotransmitters/Neurons

Definition: Chemicals (neurotransmitters) that transmit signals between neurons (nerve cells).

Example: When you touch something hot, neurons send pain signals via neurotransmitters like glutamate.

#### 5. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Definition: Includes the brain and spinal cord; processes information and sends responses.

Example: If you step on a nail, your spinal cord sends a reflex signal to move your foot before the brain feels pain.

#### 6. Plasticity

Definition: The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize after injury.

Example: After a stroke, unaffected brain areas may take over functions of damaged regions.

#### 7. Hormones

Definition: Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands (e.g., adrenaline, cortisol).

**Example:** Adrenaline increases heart rate during a scary movie.

#### 8. Endorphins

Definition: Natural painkillers and mood boosters.

Example: A "runner’s high" after intense exercise is due to endorphin release.

#### 9. Brain Scans (EEG & fMRI)

- EEG: Measures electrical activity in the brain (used in sleep studies).

- fMRI: Shows brain activity via blood flow (used to see which areas light up during tasks).

#### 10. Frontal Lobe

Definition: Responsible for decision-making, reasoning, and personality.

Example: Phineas Gage’s personality changed after a rod damaged his frontal lobe.

#### 11. Sleep / Circadian Rhythm / Consciousness

- Circadian Rhythm: The body’s 24-hour internal clock (e.g., feeling sleepy at night).

- Consciousness: Awareness of thoughts and surroundings (altered by sleep, drugs, meditation).

#### 12. Transduction

Definition: Converting sensory stimuli (light, sound) into neural signals.

Example: The eye transduces light into electrical signals for the brain to process.

#### 13. Retina

Definition: The light-sensitive layer in the eye containing rods (night vision) and cones (color vision).

Example: If cones are damaged, color blindness occurs.

#### 14. Semicircular Canals (Vestibular System)

Definition: Fluid-filled tubes in the inner ear that control balance.

Example: Spinning too fast can make you dizzy because the fluid keeps moving.

#### 15. Kinesthesis / Vestibular Sense

- Kinesthesis: Sense of body position/movement (e.g., walking in the dark).

- Vestibular Sense: Balance and spatial orientation (e.g., feeling off-balance on a boat).

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### Memory & Cognition

#### 1. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Definition: Strengthening of synaptic connections through repeated use (basis of learning).

Example: Practicing piano improves skill because neurons fire more efficiently.

#### 2. Encoding

Definition: The process of inputting information into memory.

Example: Repeating a phone number to remember it.

#### 3. Chunking

Definition: Organizing information into manageable units.

Example: Remembering a phone number as "555-867-5309" instead of 10 separate digits.

#### 4. Retrieval (Recall vs. Recognition)

- Recall: Retrieving info without cues (e.g., essay questions).

- Recognition: Identifying info with cues (e.g., multiple-choice tests).

#### 5. Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

- Top-Down: Using prior knowledge to interpret stimuli (e.g., reading a word despite typos).

- Bottom-Up: Processing from sensory input (e.g., seeing individual letters first).

#### 6. Schema

Definition: Mental frameworks that organize information.

Example: A "restaurant schema" includes menus, waiters, and tables.

#### 7. Heuristics

Definition: Mental shortcuts (e.g., rule of thumb).

Example: Assuming a well-dressed person is trustworthy (representativeness heuristic).

#### 8. Cognitive Bias (Example: Confirmation Bias)

Definition: Favoring information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Example: Only reading news that aligns with your political views.

#### 9. Growth Mindset

Definition: Belief that abilities can improve with effort (vs. fixed mindset).

Example: A student who fails but says, "I’ll study harder next time."

#### 10. Metacognition

Definition: Thinking about one’s own thinking.

Example: Realizing you learn better with flashcards than lectures.

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### Development & Learning

#### 1. Nature vs. Nurture

Definition: Debate over genes (nature) vs. environment (nurture) in development.

Example: Intelligence is influenced by both genetics (nature) and education (nurture).

#### 2. Teratogens

Definition: Harmful agents that cause birth defects (e.g., alcohol, drugs).

Example: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome results from alcohol exposure in the womb.

#### 3. Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies

- Cross-Sectional: Compares different age groups at one time.

- Longitudinal: Tracks the same group over years.

#### 4. Piaget’s Cognitive Development (4 Stages)

1. Sensorimotor (0-2): Learns through senses (object permanence).

2. Preoperational (2-7): Egocentric thinking.

3. Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical thinking (conservation tasks).

4. Formal Operational (12+): Abstract reasoning.

#### 5. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Definition: Learning by association (neutral stimulus → response).

Example: Dog salivates at bell sound after pairing it with food.

#### 6. Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Definition: Learning via rewards/punishments.

Example: A rat presses a lever for food (positive reinforcement).

#### 7. Parenting Styles (Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglectful)

- Authoritative: High warmth, high rules (best outcomes).

- Authoritarian: Strict, low warmth.

#### 8. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Definition: Learning by observing others (e.g., Bobo doll experiment).

Example: A child mimics aggressive behavior seen on TV.

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### Social Psychology

#### 1. Locus of Control (Internal vs. External)

- Internal: Belief that you control outcomes ("I failed because I didn’t study").

- External: Blame outside forces ("The test was unfair").

#### 2. Social Loafing

Definition: Exerting less effort in a group than alone.

Example: Group projects where some members slack off.

#### 3. Attribution (Fundamental Attribution Error)

Definition: Overemphasizing personality over situation when judging others.

Example: Assuming a rude waiter is a jerk (ignoring that they might be stressed).

#### 4. Norms & Conformity (Asch Experiment)

Definition: Adjusting behavior to match group standards.

Example: Saying an incorrect line length because others did.

#### 5. Social Trap

Definition: Individuals act in self-interest, harming the group.

Example: Overfishing leads to resource depletion.

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### Clinical Psychology

#### 1. DSM-5

Definition: Manual for diagnosing mental disorders.

Example: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) requires 5+ symptoms for 2+ weeks.

#### 2. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS - Selye)

Stages: Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion (stress response).

#### 3. Fight, Flight, Freeze

Definition: Automatic stress responses.

Example: Freezing during a robbery instead of fighting/running.

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### Research Methods

#### 1. Experimental vs. Correlational

- Experimental: Manipulates variables to find cause-effect (e.g., drug trials).

- Correlational: Measures relationships (e.g., ice cream sales & drowning).

#### 2. Informed Consent

Definition: Participants must know risks before agreeing.

#### 3. Debriefing

Definition: Explaining the true purpose after the study.

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This covers all terms with clear definitions and examples! Let me know if you'd like any section expanded.