APUSH SEM 1 important terms

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, culture, human populations, and technology between the Americas, Africa, and Europe following Columbus's 1492 voyage.

Encomienda System

Spanish labor system that granted conquistadors control over Native American communities, allowing them to demand tribute and forced labor.

Casta System

Spanish colonial social hierarchy based on racial ancestry and mixture, maintaining Spanish control and European privilege.

Mestizo

A person of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry in Spanish colonial society, occupying a middle position in the casta system.

Pueblo Peoples

Native American groups in the Southwest who built multi-story adobe structures and developed sophisticated irrigation systems for agriculture.

Iroquois Confederacy

Political alliance of five (later six) Native American nations in the Northeast, featuring a sophisticated government with checks and balances.

Indentured Servitude

Labor system where people agreed to work for a specified period in exchange for passage to America, room, and board.

Headright System

Policy in Virginia and Maryland that granted land to anyone who paid for their own or another person's passage to the colony.

House of Burgesses

First representative assembly in the American colonies, established in Virginia in 1619, where only white male property owners could vote.

Mayflower Compact

Agreement signed by Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620, establishing a framework for self-government based on majority rule.

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

Document adopted in 1639 considered by many to be the first written constitution in America, establishing a government with executive, legislative, and judicial powers.

Bacon's Rebellion

1676 uprising in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor Berkeley, highlighting tensions between poor farmers and the elite.

First Great Awakening

Religious revival movement in the 1730s-1740s emphasizing emotional religious experience and personal salvation.

Mercantilism

Economic theory that a nation's power depended on its wealth, requiring government regulation of the economy.

Navigation Acts

Series of English laws regulating colonial trade to benefit England, requiring goods to be shipped on English or colonial ships.

Salutary Neglect

British policy of loosely enforcing mercantilist laws in the American colonies, allowing for economic development and self-government.

French and Indian War

North American theater of the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, leading to Britain's victory and massive debt.

Proclamation of 1763

British decree prohibiting colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to avoid conflicts with Native Americans.

Stamp Act Congress

Meeting of delegates from nine colonies in 1765 to protest the Stamp Act, asserting that only colonial legislatures could tax colonists.

Boston Massacre

March 5, 1770 confrontation where British soldiers killed five colonists, used as propaganda against British tyranny.

Committees of Correspondence

Networks established to coordinate colonial resistance to British policies, sharing information and organizing protests.

Lexington and Concord

April 19, 1775 battles that began the Revolutionary War, marked by the phrase 'the shot heard 'round the world'.

Declaration of Independence

Document declaring American independence from Britain, asserting natural rights and listing grievances against King George III.

Articles of Confederation

First national government creating a weak central government with most power retained by states, ineffective in taxation and commerce.

Shays' Rebellion

1786-1787 uprising of Massachusetts farmers protesting high taxes and debt, exposing weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Constitutional Convention

1787 meeting in Philadelphia where delegates drafted the U.S. Constitution, including key compromises.

Federalist Papers

Series of 85 essays arguing for ratification of the Constitution, explaining its provisions and advocating for a strong federal government.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments to the Constitution protecting individual liberties, securing ratification.

Hamilton's Financial Plan

Alexander Hamilton's program to establish national credit and promote economic development.

Whiskey Rebellion

1794 uprising by Pennsylvania farmers against Hamilton's excise tax on whiskey.

Neutrality Proclamation

1793 declaration by Washington that the U.S. would remain neutral in the war between Britain and France.

Jay Treaty

1795 agreement with Britain that resolved some issues from the Revolutionary War, including British evacuation of western forts.

Louisiana Purchase

1803 acquisition of vast French territory west of the Mississippi River for $15 million.

Embargo Act

1807 law prohibiting American ships from trading with foreign nations, intended to pressure Britain and France to respect American neutrality.

War of 1812

Conflict between the U.S. and Britain over impressment, trade restrictions, and British support for Native American resistance.

Hartford Convention

1814-1815 meeting of New England Federalists to protest the War of 1812 and discuss regional grievances.

Missouri Compromise

1820 agreement admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining balance in the Senate.

Monroe Doctrine

1823 foreign policy statement declaring that European powers should not interfere in the Western Hemisphere.

American System

Economic plan promoted by Henry Clay involving protective tariffs, national bank, and internal improvements.

Market Revolution

Economic transformation in the early 19th century from subsistence farming to commercial agriculture and industrial production.

Erie Canal

363-mile canal completed in 1825 connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and Atlantic Ocean.

Lowell System

Factory system developed in textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts, employing young farm women.

Spoils System

Practice of rewarding political supporters with government jobs, famously associated with Andrew Jackson.

Indian Removal Act

1830 law authorizing the president to negotiate treaties forcing Native American tribes to move west of the Mississippi.

Trail of Tears

Forced relocation of Cherokee and other Native American tribes from the Southeast to Oklahoma in the 1830s.

Nullification Crisis

1832-1833 confrontation when South Carolina attempted to nullify federal tariffs.

Second Great Awakening

Religious revival beginning around 1800 emphasizing personal salvation, emotional worship, and social reform.

Seneca Falls Convention

First women's rights convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York.

Manifest Destiny

1840s belief that American expansion across the continent was both inevitable and divinely ordained.

Mexican-American War

1846-1848 conflict arising from Texas annexation and border disputes.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

1848 treaty ending the Mexican-American War.

Compromise of 1850

Series of laws attempting to resolve territorial and slavery disputes.

Fugitive Slave Law

Part of the Compromise of 1850 requiring citizens to assist in capturing runaway slaves.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

1854 law creating Kansas and Nebraska territories with popular sovereignty on slavery.

Bleeding Kansas

Period of violent conflict in Kansas Territory (1854-1859) between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers.

Republican Party

Political party formed in 1854 by anti-slavery Whigs, Democrats, and Free-Soilers opposing slavery's expansion.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

1857 Supreme Court decision ruling that African Americans weren't citizens and Congress couldn't prohibit slavery in territories.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

1858 Illinois Senate debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas focusing on slavery.

Harpers Ferry

Site of John Brown's 1859 raid attempting to seize a federal arsenal and spark a slave rebellion.

Secession

Withdrawal of eleven southern states from the Union (1860-1861) following Lincoln's election.

Fort Sumter

Federal fort in Charleston harbor where the Civil War began on April 12, 1861.

Emancipation Proclamation

January 1, 1863 executive order by Lincoln declaring slaves in rebellious states free.

Battle of Gettysburg

July 1-3, 1863 battle in Pennsylvania that was the war's turning point.

Sherman's March

General William T. Sherman's 1864 campaign through Georgia and the Carolinas practicing 'total war.'

Appomattox Court House

Site of Robert E. Lee's surrender to Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865.

Black Codes

Laws passed by southern states after the Civil War restricting freed people's rights.

Freedmen's Bureau

Federal agency (1865-1872) assisting freed slaves and poor whites in the South.

13th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that abolished slavery in 1865.

14th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that granted citizenship and equal protection to all born in the U.S. in 1868.

15th Amendment

Constitutional amendment that prohibited voting discrimination based on race in 1870.

Radical Republicans

Congressional faction advocating harsh Reconstruction policies and strong protection for freed slaves.

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

1868 impeachment of President Johnson by the House for violating the Tenure of Office Act.

Sharecropping

Agricultural system where landowners provided land, tools, and seed to farmers.

Ku Klux Klan

White supremacist terrorist organization formed in 1866 using violence and intimidation.

Compromise of 1877

Agreement resolving the disputed 1876 presidential election.

Gilded Age

Period roughly 1870-1900 characterized by rapid industrialization and political corruption.

Gospel of Wealth

Philosophy promoted by Andrew Carnegie arguing that the wealthy had a moral obligation to distribute their fortunes.

Social Darwinism

Application of Darwin's 'survival of the fittest' to human society.

Vertical Integration

Business strategy of controlling all production stages.

Horizontal Integration

Business strategy of buying competitors.

Sherman Antitrust Act

1890 federal law prohibiting trusts and monopolies that restrained trade.

Interstate Commerce Act

1887 law regulating railroads and prohibiting rate discrimination.

Knights of Labor

Labor union founded in 1869 accepting all workers regardless of skill, race, or gender.

American Federation of Labor

Labor union founded in 1886 organizing skilled workers by craft.

Haymarket Affair

1886 incident in Chicago where a labor rally turned violent.

Homestead Strike

1892 violent labor conflict at Carnegie's steel plant in Pennsylvania.

Pullman Strike

1894 nationwide railroad strike led by Eugene V. Debs.

Chinese Exclusion Act

1882 law prohibiting Chinese immigration for ten years.

Political Machines

Organizations controlling local politics through patronage.

Pendleton Act

1883 civil service reform law requiring federal jobs be awarded based on merit.

Transcontinental Railroad

Railroad connecting the eastern U.S. to the Pacific, completed in 1869.

Homestead Act

1862 law offering 160 acres of public land free to settlers.

Dawes Act

1887 law dividing tribal lands into individual allotments to encourage assimilation.

Battle of Little Bighorn

1876 battle where Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors defeated George Custer's 7th Cavalry.

Wounded Knee

1890 massacre where U.S. troops killed over 150 Lakota Sioux.

Grange Movement

Farmers' organization founded in 1867 forming cooperatives and lobbying for railroad regulation.

Populist Party

Third party formed in 1892 representing farmers and workers.

'Cross of Gold' Speech

William Jennings Bryan's famous 1896 Democratic convention speech supporting unlimited silver coinage.