SS Final Terms

Absolutism

Absolutism

• System of govt where a single ruler has complete power over the state and their people

• Monarchs like Louis XIV or Charles I used the divine right of kings to justify their absolute power and shape Europe's political system.

Alexander Hamilton

• A founding father, fought in the Revolutionary War, helped draft the Constitution, and created the US financial system as the first secretary of the treasury

• His ideas play a role in America's political system today

Anti-Federalists

• Believed the Constitution gave excessive power to the federal govt, diminishing state and local govt authority.

• Their beliefs emphasize how power should be balanced between federal govt + states, while still protecting citizen's rights

Article One of the U.S. Constitution (Legislative)

• Defines power of Congress, has power to write laws, declare war, + impeach president

• Ensures the separation of powers and checks and balances, crucial to the govt of America

Article Two of the U.S. Constitution (Executive)

• Defines power of President, has power to enforce + execute laws

• Ensures that the President is capable of properly functioning the govt

Article Three of the U.S. Constitution (Judicial)

• Defines power of federal courts, has power to interpret laws + resolving disputes about federal laws

• Ensures that the legal system protects the rights + liberties of a citizen

April 19th, 1775

• First shots fired between the British + Americans in Lexington + Concord, MA

• The leading cause to the American Revolutionary War

Articles of Confederation

• Adopted by the Continental Congress in 1777 and served as the US' 1st constituition (it was weak + lacked power in the govt)

• Despite its weaknesses, it was America's first attempt in establishing a govt and played a role in its evolution

Baruch Spinoza

• Philosopher who thought that God was the Universe (Pantheism) + introduced rational thinking

• Kicked out Jewish community for his pantheist beliefs

• Challenged religious + philosophical beliefs with his ideas

Bismarck

• Politician who was Germany's 1st chancellor + unified 39 individual states into 1 German nation

• Unified Germany + established their empire

Charles I

• King of Great Britain + Ireland, who had frequent quarrels w/Parliament

• His quarrels led to the Civil War + his execution. This marked the end of English monarchy

Charles II

• King of Great Britain + Ireland. His political adaptability guided his country through religious unrest b/w Anglicans, Catholics + dissenters

• Restored the monarchy after the death of Charles I

Charles Montesquieu

• Believed that power should be divided

• Contributed to the separation of powers which led to the 3 govt branches

Checks and Balances

• Used to keep the government from getting too powerful in one branch

• Prevents the abuse of power in the govt to protect citizens' rights

Christian Humanism

• regards principles of humanism such as universal human dignity, individual freedom, and the significance of happiness as fundamental components of Jesus' teachings

• Played a role in influencing art, literature, + philosophy which inspired movements for human justice

Copernicus

• a mathematician and astronomer who proposed that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth revolved around it

• his introduction to heliocentrism played a role in the understanding of our universe

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• document that sets out natural rights like freedom, ownership, security, + resistance to oppression

• crucial to the protection of individual rights + ensuring a just govt

Deism

• belief in the existence of a supreme being, specifically of a creator who does not intervene in the universe

• played a role in developing religious tolerance (acceptance of diff religious practices)

Denis Diderot

• French philosopher, who wrote the Encyclopedia, which is a momument of the French Enlightenment, representing the standard of scholarly knowledge of its time

• Important philosopher during Enlightenment who promoted critical thinking

Galileo

• Figured out telescopic mechanics and invented an improved model of it, discovered sun spots, proved that Earth isn’t center of solar system

• His discoveries were crucial to the Scientific Revolution but were considered controversial which led to conflic between him and the church

Edmund Burke

• Opposed the French Revolution + valued tradition + the structures built overtime rather than the shattering of state, culture, + religion

• His beliefs played a role in the development of conservatism

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

• American writer, who organized the first Women’s Rights Convention + co-authored the Declaration of Sentiments

• First woman to point out absence of women’s voting rights

Erasmus

• Dutch Renaissance humanist and theologian

• Produced Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament to provide a more accurate version of the Bible

• His achievements played a role in the development of modern Christianity + he helped lay the groundwork of the Reformation Movement

Extreme Nationalism

• involves a fanatical devotion to a particular ethnic, religious, or political identity and is often tied to totalitarian rule and genocidal warfare

• significance?

Father Hidalgo

• The first insurgent and founding father of Mexico

• Crucial figure in advocating for social and economic improvements which developed Mexican nationalism

Federalists

• Supporters of proposed constitution

• Responsible for the layout of the constituition which inspired the system of checks + balances

Francis Bacon

• Author of “The Four Idols”, discovered the scientific method, + had the belief that science is about wealth + power, and that we must understand nature to dominate it and get what we want

• His beliefs challenged the traditional methods of reasoning since he relied on observation + experimentation

Francisco Pizarro

• Explorer, soldier, and conquistador best known for conquering the Incas and executing their leader, Atahualpa

• His conquering of the Incas benefited Spain in gaining more resources (introduced gun powder + weapons)

Frederick Douglass

• Author of one of his best known works, “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave”

• He advocated for the rights of African Americans + fought to abolish slavery. His book helped push the abolitionist movement

Hernan Cortez

• Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztecs + claimed Mexico on behalf of Spain

• His achievements expanded the Spanish Empire + introduced Spanish culture + language

Hypatia of Alexandria

• Born rich + privileged, taught mathematics + philosophy, believed in classical nature + didn’t care for religion

• Murdered by a mob of Christian zealots because they viewed her as a terrible person because she was a woman

• Her death was a symbol of the ongoing struggle for overcoming sexism in society + gaining women’s rights

Isaac Newton

• Explained the phenomenon of the spectrum + figured out the basic laws of motion:

  • 1st: objects at rest, stay at rest + objects in motion, stay in motion unless there’s applied force

  • 2nd: force = mass times its acceleration

  • 3rd: for every action, there’s an equal + opp reaction

• His observations laid the foundation of physics + had a huge impact on math + science

James II

• Last Catholic monarch of England, Scotland, and Ireland + is known for his conflicts over religious tolerance + principles of absolutism + divine right of kings

• His beliefs led to his dethronement and marked a turning point in British History

James Madison

• America's 4th President, who contributed to the ratification of the Constituition by writing the Federalist Papers

• His contribution emphasize how he wanted to protect the right + freedoms of citizens

Jamestown

• The area in which English men + boys settled in when they arrived in North America

• First permanent English settlement in America which marks the start of English colonization

Jean Jacques Rousseau

• Important philosopher who believed that people were born good + society corrupted them, + that everyone should have freedom but govt is needed to protect these rights

• Imporant philosopher during Enlightenment + his ideas shaped democracy + individual rights

Johannes Gutenberg

• Started the production of books and they became many times cheaper than they were before + invented printing press

• His invention changed the way information was being produced and spread across the world

John Adams

• 2nd US president, who helped his country avoid war w/France + was one of the Founding Fathers who didn’t enslave people

• Contributed to the American Revolution + established the govt of the US

John Calvin

• Person behind the theology of Calvinism, the belief that there’s more to getting into heaven

• His theological contribution impacted the Protestant Reformation and how religious ideas changed over time

John Lilburne

• One of the leader figures for the English Civil War who advocated for civil rights

• Despite being imprisoned multiple times for political activism, he still was persistent in advocating for freedom + civil rights which played a role in influencing civil movements

John Locke

• English philosopher who believed in power being divided + that people were born with the right to life, liberty, and property.

• His ideas influenced the drafting of the Constituition and helped shape democracy

John Marshall

• Because of him the judicial branch has the power to strike down laws

• Paved the way for expansion of federal govt + emphasized the importance of the protection of individual rights

Kant

• German philosopher, who believed that the shared ability of humans to reason should be the basis of morality

• Anticipated major ideas that would develop in the 20th century, such as the European Union and United Nations

• His ideas impacted philosophy and politics + laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment

La Reconquista

• Refers to the period of Colombian and Chilean history, during which royalist armies were able to gain the upper hand in the Spanish-American wars of independence

• Shaped the cultural identity of modern-day Spain + Portugal

Lafayette

• A French aristocrat, a general in the American Revolutionary War, and a leader of the Garde Nationale during the French Revolution

• Helped secure aid from France during the Revolution which earned him praise from the Americans + was the reason why the French + Americans formed an alliance

Leonardo Da Vinci

• An engineer and visionary inventor. He devised plausible designs for technological achievements that would not become real until the 20th century, including diving suits, armored tanks, + helicopters

• Raphael painted him as Plato in his painting

• His ahievements were very influential during the Renaissance and influenced other Renaissance thinkers/artists

Liberal (civic) nationalism

• combines a sense of national purpose with liberal values and is more common in multiethnic societies

• emphasized the importance of individual liberty + protection of individual rights

Lisbon Earthquake

• Earthquake that occurred in 1755 and heavily impacted Lisbon, Portugal. It led to the deaths of around 60,000 people

• During this time, people believed that God created the world and was capable of making the best version of the world. However, when there were incidents like this earthquake, it changed their thinking

Louis XIV

• Established the French monarchy as an absolute power in France + after his reign, the estates general stopped meeting + they decided not to tolerate protestants

• Built the Grand palace of Versailles as a residence for himself

• Shaped France into a European power

Louis XVI

• Approved French military support for American colonies in their successful struggle against the British, but the expense nearly bankrupted the country

• Convened the Estates-General which eventually sparked the French Revolution

• Last king before the fall of monarchy during French Revolution + his death led to the rise of Napoleon

Lucretia Mott

• Women activist who played a role in the women’s suffrage movement and was a strong advocator of ending slavery

• Paved the way for future generations with her advocacy for women’s rights + social justice

Machiavelli

• Believed that, for a ruler, it was better to be widely feared than to be greatly loved; a loved ruler retains authority by obligation, while a feared leader rules by fear of punishment

• Best known for his book, “The Prince” which had a huge impact on politcal theory + how to rule during the Renaissance

Malthusian Deadlock

• a state where the population would stop growing due to a shortage of food supply which ultimately led to starvation

• shaped the way people decided to manage resources + control population

Mandates

• a system of territory governance established after World War I to administer territories that were formerly part of the Ottoman + German Empire

• made to help territories gain self-independence + maintain peace w/one another but eventually led to tension + conflict

Martin Luther

• One of the most significant figures who birthed the Protestant Reformation + wrote the 95 theses, which challenged the teachings of the Catholic Church

• Created the Luthereran Church

• His critiquing of the Catholic church and attempting to reform their beliefs led to the creation of diff branches of Christianity

Mary Wollstonecraft

• British writer + women’s right activist who argued that women were being denied of educational + social freedom. She believed that women should be given the same opportunities as men (going to school, right to vote, etc)

• Her beliefs influenced the feminist movement

Marquis de Condorcet

• French philosopher during Enlightenment period who is known for advocating for human rights + democracy, like abolishing slavery + equal rights for women

• His beliefs contributed to political science like the Condorcet method of voting + jury theorem

Mazzini

• Italian politician + activist for the unification of Italy and their independence from foreign rulers

• His ideas led to the establishment of modern Italian state

Metternich

• Austrian politician and diplomat, who suppressed nationalistic and democratic trends in Central Europe but was also the architect of a diplomatic system that kept Europe at peace for a century

• His achievements shaped the Austrian Empire’s policies and had an impact on the Congress of Vienna

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Became dictator of France in 1804 + invaded Russia in 1812 which was a mistake on his end because of lack of supplies

• Promoted the Napoleonic code (laws for France + its territories)

• Brought back slavery

• Contributed to the ideas of the Enlightenment + his ideas led to the decline of multiple monarchies

Olaudah Equiano

• Leveraged capitalism to buy his freedom + after gaining freedom he became an abolitionist to advocate against slavery

• His achievements brought awareness to the experience of transatlantic slave trade which influenced the abolitionist movement

Oliver Cromwell

• Known for being Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England Scotland and Ireland after the defeat of King Charles I in the Civil War

• Played a role in the English Civil War and his ideas evolved the constituitional govt + religious toleration

Olympe de Gouges

• Political activist + feminist during French Revolution, who advocated for women’s rights. Her beliefs were seen as controversial so it led to her execution where she was guillotined

• B/c women didn’t have a say in society, her bravery in challenging the social + political norms inspired other women to feel empowered in advocating for their rights

Patrick Henry

• One of the founding fathers + anti-federalist, who was known for his famous speech, “Give me liberty or give me death.”

• Important figure during American Revolution + played a role in the movement to gain independence from Great Britain. His speeches + advocacy supported the American Rev.

Peace of Westphalia, 1648

• A conference that worked out the national borders between nations and ended the Thirty Years' War. It balanced power + helped countries determine which territories they can conquer

• Gave states the right to govern themselves without external powers interfering them + marked the transition from religious-based disputes → secular based disputes

Plymouth, 1620

• When the pilgrims arrived in Plymouth MA and their goal was to practice their religion + wouldn’t have survived without the Wampanoag Indians

• Marked the beginning of colonization in America + formed the first permanent settlement of Europeans in America

Ptolemy

• Synthesized Greek knowledge of the known Universe. He was known for his contributions to the study of the solar system, promoting acceptance of his view of the cosmos in the Byzantine + Islamic worlds and throughout Europe

• His observations were crucial to the understanding of the universe

Queen Elizabeth I

• Reigned in a time where there was huge potential for religious violence and risk of England being invaded by Spain

• Wanted to establish the church of England as the official church of her monarchy but if you were Catholic it was fine as long as you didn't try to overthrow her

• She reigned during a period of time where people didn’t believe in the idea of women being in power, so her reign was a symbol of woman empowerment

Raphael

• Italian painter and architect of the Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition, and visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur

• His artistic achievements influenced other Renaissance artists

Rene Descartes

• A mathematician who made the connection between geometry and algebra

• He begins with doubt but understands the world through logical conclusions (deductive reasoning)

• Contributed to the Enlightenment by establishing principles of philosophy and modern rationalism

Representative Democracy

• A system of govt where citizens vote for their govt officials

• Gives citizens a say in who should govern their country which provides for a system of checks + balances

Robespierre

• Ruler during the Reign of Terror and led the govt under dictatorship

• Poisoned himself to avoid letting others have the satisfaction of executing him, his death led to the end of the Terror

• Played a role in the French Revolution by developing govt policies where the use of terror should be used

Romantic Nationalism

• strong emphasis on cultural diversity and is more common in societies in which a single ethnic group predominates

• Played a role in shaping the concept of national identity which influences politics + culture today

Samuel Adams

• Part of the Sons of Liberty and one of the Founding Fathers, who led the movement against British taxation like the Boston Tea Party. He also signed the Declaration of Independence

• His movement against British taxation led to the American Revolution and was a great advocator for American Independence

Sir Thomas More

• Author of Utopia, which is an imaginary society that possesses nearly perfect qualities for its members, no private property, no conflict over religion

• Executed because he refused to acknowledge King Henry VIII as head of Church

• His ideas influenced philosophical thinking + inspired others to advocate for their beliefs even if others won’t agree

St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

• Violent tragedy in France in 1572, where Catholics are killing French Protestants after the reformation

• Caused tension between Catholic + Protestant communities which marked a turning point during the French Wars of Religion

Talleyrand

• French politician who signed the Treaty of Paris and played a role in the French Revolution

• His conduct of foreign affairs at the Congress of Vienna, where he altered the political map of Europe after the fall of Napoleon

The Bastille

• A prison in France that was built to keep out foreign invaders

• It was where the French citizens invaded in 1789 as a symbol of resisting monarchy and the start of the French Revolution

The Bill of Rights

• 1st 10 amendments in the Constituition, which is a list of rights that citizens are guaranteed to have

• Protects individual liberties and ensured that the govt didn’t abuse their power

The Black Death

• A devastating global epidemic of bubonic plague that struck Europe and Asia in the mid-1300s

• High # of deaths led to changes in demographics + economics + caused people to turn to the church for religious guidance

The Boston Massacre

• Violent tragedy in 1770, where British soldiers killed American colonists for revolting against British rule

• Encouraged the American Revolution + increased colonial resistance against British rule-

The Chartist Movement

• Political reform that advocated for the magna carta, universal male suffrage, secret ballot voting, open elections for Parliament, salaries for delegates, and right to form unions

• Paved the way for future reforms that advocated political rights to working-class people

The Committee of Public Safety

• Committee that formed in 1793 that ensured protection for the nation from domestic + foreign enemies

• Led to the downfall of Robespierre and end of Reign of Terror

The Congress of Vienna

• Conference held in 1815, where the map of Europe was redrawn + the restoration of balanced powers occurred

• Prevented wars for centuries and established balance of power to maintain peace withing territories which led to rise of nationalism

The Declaration of Sentiments

• Document from 1848, written by women’s rights activists, that advocated for women to have the same political rights as men

• Foundation for the start of the women’s suffrage movement + inspired women to take action to stand up for their rights

The Encyclopedia

• Written by Denis Diderot to promote the spread of knowledge + critical thinking to enhance the ideas of the Enlightenment

• Marked the shift of replacing tradition + faith with reason to science and useful knowledge

The English Bill of Rights

• Document passed in 1689, where it outlined the rights of English citizens + limits the power of the monarchy

• Guaranteed the rights to petition the govt, bear arms, free + fair elections

• Marked the transition from monarchy to Parliamenet and established individual rights that were crucial to modern democractic societies

The English Civil War

• Conflict between the Royalists (supporters of King Charles I) + Parliamentarians (Parliament supporters) b/c of the disagreements about religion + King’s abuse of power

• Led to establishment of a monarchy in England + put an end to the idea of the divine right of kings + absolute power

The Estates General

• Consisted of 3 estates: the clergy, nobility, + commoners to address taxation problems + govt reforms

• Played a role in French Revolution + led to downfall of French monarchy

The French + Indian War

• War between the British + French, where they fought to decide who should be able to have power over North American territories (British won)

• Contributed to outbreak of American Revolution because of the financial burden that the British govt had to carry which led them to impose taxes on American colonies

The General Will

• Developed by Jean Jacques Rousseau, which refers to the will of people as a whole, rather than individuals

• Proposed the idea that will of people as a whole should be the foundation of political power which inspired the French Revolution

The Glorious Revolution

• Series of events where the Parliament was permanently established + the overthrow of King James II

• Marked the transition from absolute monarchy to a constituitional monarchy

The Middle Passage

• Triangular trade route where slaves were transported from West Africa to the Americas

• The most brutal part of the transatlantic slave trade + led the establishment of slavery in the Americas

The National Razor

• Nickname given to the guillotine (a machine that beheaded people) because it was a sacrifice to a new god + becoming a new nation b/c they were getting rid of terrible people

• Was a primary symbol of the Reign of Terror because it contributed to the fear + instability of the French Revolution

The School of Athens

• Painting by Renaissance artist, Raphael, which depicted famous philosophers + thinkers like Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, etc engaging in discussions

• Represented the ideas established during the Renaissance period + was a symbol of its cultural achievements

The Tennis Court Oath

• When the National Assembly gathered in a tennis court after being locked out their meetng hall to swear an oath that they will stay in the tennis court until they finish writing the new constituition

• Symbolic movement that marked beginnning of French Revolution + showed their determination to end absolute monarchy

The Third Estate

• Term used during French Revolution to describe the 3rd class in a society that is divided into estates aka the commoners

• Played a role in major events during the French Revolution like the creation of the National Assembly + Storming of the Bastille

Thirty Years War

• Religious war in Germany between Roman Catholics + Protestansts that gradually transitioned into a political war

• One of the deadliest tragedies in history but it put an end to religious wars in Europe and changed the way power was balanced in European nations

Thomas Jefferson

• One of the Founding Fathers + author of the Declaration of Independence who was an important figure during American Revolution

• Advocated for democracy + religious freedom + helped expanded the US through the Louisiana Purchase

Thomas Hobbes

• Philosopher during the Enlightenment who wrote “Leviathan”, where he argues that absolute monarchy is the best form of govt + believes that people are selfish and without a strong govt then society will fall apart

• Laid the foundation of political philosophy which inspired other philosophical thinkers