Higher Level Cognition (Thinking, Problem Solving, Reasoning, Making Decisions)

How is problem solving studied

• Presenting participants w/ problems, where features of those problems might be manipulated and examining how individuals perform on these problems

Well-defined vs Ill-defined problems

Well-defined

• Have a clear goal

• Only one correct solution

• Have to follow a set procedure to get the answer

• E.g math problems

Ill-defined

• Goals arent clearly defined

• Multiple solutions or not solutions at all

• No procedures

• Solutions can involve getting evidence etc.

• E.g dealing w climate change

Key point: Problem solving depends …

Problem solving depends critically on how a problem is mentally represented; suboptimal problem representations can lead to impasses, and restructuring the representation can help overcome these impasses.

Define insight problems vs non-insight problems

Insight problems

• a problem that requires re-structuring the way the problem is represented in order to get the solution

  • can’t solve them using your usual approach.

• E.g nine dot problem

• Involves aha moment

non-insight problems

• Involves a gradual realization that you are approaching the solution

• E.g tower of Hanoi

Metcalfe & weibe study on insight and non insight problems

Warmth feeling: getting close to the answer

• Insight problems:

  • People did not feel like they were getting closer to the solution.

  • Warmth feelings stayed low until the end when they got the answer

• Non-insight problems (e.g., algebra):

  • People’s “warmth” ratings gradually increased over time.

  • They could sense steady progress toward the solution.

Mental set

• Tendency for people to stick w/ whatever they are familiar with to solve problems —> using the same strategy/ method bc it worked before but this can prevent you from solving other problems

Functional fixedness

• Tendency to think a object cant be used for other functions/ purposes. Rather it can only be used for its usual function

• E.g A knife → you think it’s only for cutting
  (but it could also be used as a screwdriver in a pinch)

• Prevents you from seeing a better or correct use of the tool in a situation —> restricting our problem solving ability

Duncker’s candle problem + 5,6,7 years old in preutilization and non-utilization condition

• People are given a candle, matches, and a box of tacks and must put the candle to a wall.

• Many people fail to solve the problem because of functional fixedness.

• They see the box only as a container for tacks, not as something they can use to hold the handle on the wall

• Thus, ppl get stuck

5,6,7 years old in preutilization and non-utilization condition

• Preutilization condition: match box used for matches

• Non-utlization condition: match box not used

• preutilization condition

  • 5 years old performed better bc they have less experiences w/ objects —> more flexible thinking so wasnt stuck

  • 6–7 years old were affected by functional fixedness bc they have more experience

• Non-utilization condition

  • 5 years old perfomed worse

  • 6-7 years old performed better

4 strategies in solving problems

1. Generate and test

   • Come up w all the possible solutions and then test each solution

   • Good if theres a limited number of possibiltieis

   • Con:

     • Too many possiibltieis

     • no guidance over generation

     • cant keep track of possibiltiies tested

2. Means-ends

   • Solving a problem by breaking a big problem into smaller steps

   • Initial state: where u start

   • goal state: Where u want to reach

   • intermediate states: the diff steps u go through when solving a problem

   • operators: actions u take to achieve goal

   • Pros:

     • Reduces difference b/w initial and goal state

     • Involves generating a goal and then sub goals

3. reasoning by analogy

• Problem solving by finding comparisons between two situations and apply
  the solution from one situation to the other

• use knowledge in one domain to help us solve problems in other domains

• requires being able to “see” the structural similarities between the problems

4. incubation

• taking a break leads to a sudden solution or increased ease of solving, suggesting unconscious mental processing —> solution randomly pops up in your mind while you take a break

• Limited evidence

Incubation - Smith and blankenship puzzle study

• Were given a harder puzzle + a clue to solve the puzzle but the clue was to guide them to the wrong answer so mislead them

• Participants improved with delays (5 and 15 min delays) —> Supporting incubation

• This improvement is b/c the breaks caused participants forgot abt the misleading cues

Define reasoning

• inferences or conclusions drawn from other information

  
  

Types of reasoning

1. Deductive reasoning

• goes from the general to the specific

• deductive validity -> if the premises are true,
  and one follows the dictates of logic, then the
  conclusion will be true

• E.g

  • All university students like pizza (premise)
    Terry is a university student (premise)
    Therefore, Terry likes pizza (conclusion)

2. Inductive reasoning

• Goes from specific to general

• we cannot be certain of our conclusion

• conclusion will vary in inductive strength

• E.g

  • Brian is a university student (premise)
    Brian lives in a dormitory (premise)
    Therefore, all university students live in
    dormitories (conclusion)

3. Propositional reasoning

• Drawing a conclusion from premises in the form of propositions

• Propositions: can be true or false

• E.g “Today is Tuesday”
  “If Today is Tuesday, then we have class”

Confirmation bias Watson selection task + Social version of watson task

• Most people choose E and 2 ❌ (wrong)

• Correct answer is E and 5 ✅

• People prefer to look for evidence that shows the rule is true rather than try to disprove —> trying to confirm the proposition rather than disprove it

Social version of watson task

• Rule is framed as a social contract→ “If you take a benefit (drink beer), you must meet a condition (be over 21)”

• Ppl performed better in this ver —> less reasoning mistakes

• Shows how the social ver is easier bc ppl use real life reasoning

Confirmation bias

• People tend to seek confirmatory evidence for a hypothesis

Key point: When reasoning, people tend to seek …

When reasoning, people tend to seek evidence that confirms their beliefs rather than evidence that would test or falsify them.

Eliminative strategy

Successful reasoning involves falsify your hypotheses, and thus eliminate incorrect beliefs —> prove your hypothesis is wrong

Dual process theory

• Says we have 2 processing systems thats used in reasoning:

  • 1.Intuitive process: fast, automatic, more mistakes

  • 2.Reflective process: Slow, requires effort, more accurate

Key point: Reasoning is often described in terms of …

Reasoning is often described in terms of two broad types of processes: fast, automatic, intuitive processes (Type 1) and slower, controlled, analytic processes (Type 2).

Recognition-Primed Decision Making (RPD)

Experts make quick decisions by recognizing patterns and acting on experience, rather than comparing multiple options.