HUMBEHV 2B06 - WEEK 9 TOKEN ECONOMIES & GROUP CONTINGENCIES

Group Contingencies

A common consequence (usually a reward/reinforcer) is delivered depending on the behaviour of:

- One individual of the group

- Part of the group

- The entire group

Group Contingencies: Why use them?

- They are a time saver

- More practical in group settings

- Uses peer influence and peer monitoring (can help, but can also be harmful if misused)

Independent Group Contingencies

- This contingency applies to all group members, but only those who meet the set criteria/expectations get reinforcement.

- These are often paired with contracts or token systems (e.g., allowance)

- It does not encourage peer cooperation, tutoring, or assistance

Interdependent Group Contingencies

- All members of a group must meet the contingency criterion for anyone to earn reinforcement.

- Either the total group meets criterion and is everyone reinforced OR the group average meets criterion and everyone reinforced.

- Ex. Good behaviour / Good Student Games (competitions).

- Promotes peer cooperation, tutoring, and assistance.

- Uses peer influence strategically to improve outcomes.

The Good Behaviour Game

Interdependent Group Contingencies

- First demonstrated in the 1960s with 4th-grade students (Barrish, Saunders & Wolf, 1969).

How it works:

- Divide class into teams.

- Set rules for appropriate behaviour.

- Mark points for rule-breaking.

- Team wins if points remain below a predetermined limit of rule breaking.

- Winning team (with the lowest number of rule breaks) receives rewards.

- Serves as a classroom management tool that reduces disruptive behaviour.

- Encourages peer monitoring and cooperation.

Dependent Group Contingencies

- Reinforcement for the whole group is based on the performance of one individual or a handful of individuals. (ex. playing on a sports team)

- Also called "The Hero Procedure"

- Promotes peer cooperation

- Encourages peer tutoring/assistance

- Uses peer influence to support behaviour change

Implementing a group contingency

- Choose a powerful reinforcer (ask them!)

- Identify the target behaviour and note collateral behaviours that might be affected

- Set appropriate performance criteria

- Combine with other procedures

- Select the most appropriate group contingency

- Monitor individual and group performance

What are Token Economies?: Three major components

A token economy is a behaviour change system with three major components:

- A specified list of behaviours to reinforce

- Token/points (an intermediate reinforcer that provides a visual!)

- A menu of back up reinforces to exchange for he token

Token economies: How do you use them?

- Use symbols that represent an upcoming reward

- Tokens become secondary/conditioned reinforcers because they can be exchanged for items or activities.

- Ex. Bingo dabbers, Stickers, Point systems

- Students earn a certain number of tokens → then gain access to a preferred item.

Designing a token economy

1. Select tokens

2. Identify target behaviours/rules

3. Choose a menu of back-up reinforcers

4. Set the exchange ratio and specify when/how tokens are given and exchanged

5. Field test the system

1. Selecting Tokens

Designing a token economy

Examples of tokens: Washers, checkers, coupons. poker chips, tally marks, stickers, holes punched in cards

Considerations

- Must be safe

- Control counterfeiting/bootlegging (you don't want clients to be trading them with others)

- Durable

- Accessible

- Cheap

- Tokens should not be so desirable that the learner doesn’t want to exchange them

2. Identify Target Behaviours and Rules

Designing a token economy

- Select measurable/observable behaviours

- Specify criteria for task completion

- Start with a small number of behaviours

- Ensure learners have the prerequisite skills (e.g., fine motor skills)

- It is OK to individualize (e.g., maybe use a bigger or smaller token board); rules don’t need to be the same for everyone!

3. Select a Menu of Backup Reinforcers

Designing a token economy

- Use naturally occurring activities when possible

- Include privileges

- Tangibles and edibles can also be used

- Note: Follow all ethical and legal rules

4. Establish Rules of Exchange

Designing a token economy

Set a ratio of exchange

- Start with a small ratio (e.g., 1 token for a toy car)

- Adjust later for maintenance (e.g., 3 token for a toy car)

Procedure for token dispensation

- Tokens may need storage containers!

Procedure for exchange

- Usually involves a store

- Initially, keep store open frequently

- Over time, make access more intermittent

5. Field Test The System

Designing a token economy

- For 3–5 days, tally how many tokens you would have given for target behaviours (without actually giving them)

- Analyze the data to see if the system seems appropriate

- Design your system based on this test!

Implementing a Token Economy

Implementation Steps:

- Describe the procedure to learners

- Model token delivery (e.g., placing the token on the board) and exchange procedures (e.g., exchanging the tokens in the store)

Address management issues:

- Teach students where/how to store tokens (secure location)

- Discourage hoarding and encourage saving when appropriate

- Handle chronic rule-breakers with special considerations (e.g., response cost; negative punishment, reinforcer assessment)

Withdrawing the Token Program

Steps for Fading Tokens:

- Plan for maintenance and generalization

- Pair tokens with social praise

- Gradually increase responses required to earn tokens

- Gradually decrease duration the system is in place

- Gradually increase natural reinforcers and fade contrived ones

- Increase price of more desirable items systematically

- Fade physical evidence of tokens over time

Token Tips

Avoid battles:

- Be factual when learners don’t earn tokens

- Don’t nag!

- Stay neutral; avoid confrontation about tokens

Response cost (Be cautious):

- Most systems include response cost

- Learners must know which behaviours lead to response cost

- Match the cost to the severity of behaviour

- Avoid putting learners “in the hole”

Advantages of Token Systems

- Easy to give and collect

- Structures reinforcement: prompts mediators to reinforce consistently

- Immediate reinforcement without disrupting ongoing activity

- Teaches saving skills for future purchases

- Reduces likelihood of satiation

- Response cost is easy to implement

- Flexibility: a different person can deliver backup reinforcer than the one who gave the tokens

Disadvantages of Token Systems

- High maintenance: programs require constant attention

- Mediator training required: staff, teachers, or parents must implement accurately and consistently

- Artificial nature: must plan for fading tokens once behaviour is established

- Time and resources: similar to real-world systems (e.g., money), maintaining a token system takes significant effort