AP Psych Unit 5: Thinking and Language

Cognition

The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through experience, thought, and the senses.

Concepts

Mental categories used to group objects, events, or ideas that share similar characteristics.

Prototypes

The most typical or ideal examples of a concept, serving as a mental reference point.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems, guaranteeing a correct solution if followed correctly.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making but do not guarantee a solution.

Representativeness heuristic

A cognitive bias used when making judgments about the probability of an event based on how closely it resembles a particular prototype.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision.

Mental set

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experience, which may hinder problem-solving.

Functional fixedness/fixation

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

Priming

The process by which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus.

Framing

The way information is presented or structured, which can significantly influence decision-making and judgement.

Gambler’s fallacy

The belief that future probabilities are altered by past events, often seen in games of chance.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.

Executive functions

High-level cognitive processes that include planning, attention, problem-solving, and regulating emotions.

Creativity

The ability to produce new and original ideas or works.

Convergent thinking

A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single best solution to a problem.

Divergent thinking

A type of thinking that generates multiple possible answers to a question or problem.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs.

Belief perseverance

The tendency to hold on to beliefs even in the face of contrary evidence.

Left hemisphere

The side of the brain that is typically associated with language, analytical thinking, and logical reasoning.

Broca’s area

A region in the left hemisphere of the brain, associated primarily with speech production and language processing.

Wernicke’s area

A relevant area of the brain involved in the comprehension of speech and the production of meaningful sentences.

Aphasia

A condition that impairs a person's ability to process language, affecting both speech and comprehension.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another.

Morphemes

The smallest grammatical units in a language; can be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix or suffix).

Semantics

The study of meaning in language; how words and sentences convey meaning.

Grammar

The set of rules that govern how words are combined to form sentences.

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

Cooing

Early vocalization, producing soft vowel sounds, typically occurring at 6-8 weeks.

Babbling

The repetitive consonant-vowel combinations produced by infants around 4-6 months.

One-word speech

The use of single words to convey complex meanings, often seen in children around 12 months.

Telegraphic speech

Two-word combinations that convey simple meanings, usually occurring around 24 months.

Overgeneralization of language rules

The tendency of children to incorrectly apply grammatical rules to irregular cases.

Intuition

The ability to understand or know something immediately based on feelings rather than conscious reasoning.

Planning fallacy

The tendency to underestimate the time, costs, and risks of future actions and overestimate the benefits, leading to delays and budget overruns.

Foresight

The ability to predict or anticipate future events or developments based on current trends, data, or experiences.

Insight

The capacity to gain an accurate and deep understanding of someone or something, often leading to a sudden realization or solution to a problem.

Receptive language

The ability to understand and process the language that one hears or reads, encompassing comprehension of vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure.

Productive language

The ability to produce language in the forms of speaking or writing, including the use of vocabulary, grammar, and syntax to convey meaning.

Executive Control

The ability to regulate thoughts, emotions, and actions in order to achieve goals; a subset of executive functions that involves managing cognitive processes.

Bilingual Advantage

The cognitive benefits experienced by bilingual individuals, including improved executive functions, better problem-solving skills, and enhanced cognitive flexibility.