modern: 1750-1900

Social Darwinism

a pseudoscientific ideology applying Darwinian principles to justify social hierarchies, was used by Europeans during the Modern period to rationalize their imperialism in Africa. They falsely claimed that their technological and economic advancements were evidence of their inherent biological and cultural superiority, justifying the subjugation and exploitation of African peoples as a natural order. This racist ideology fueled the civilizing mission and the belief in the "White Man's Burden," contributing to the dehumanization of Africans and the brutal nature of colonial rule.

civilizing mission

the paternalistic justification used by European imperial powers during the Modern period to legitimize their control over Africa, claiming they were bringing progress and enlightenment, often while exploiting resources like rubber in the Belgian Congo under King Leopold II. This ideology masked the economic exploitation and political domination inherent in imperialism and contributed to the erosion of African traditions.

White Man’s Burden

Rudyard Kipling's poem reflected the racist ideology prevalent during the Modern period, portraying European imperialism in Africa as a moral duty to uplift supposedly inferior races, ignoring the brutal realities of colonial exploitation. This concept is crucial for understanding the justifications behind European colonization and the condescending attitudes towards colonized populations.

Egypt

While _____ had a long history of textile production, during the Modern period under British influence after 1882, its economy increasingly focused on raw cotton production to supply British mills, often at the expense of local Egyptian textile production. This exemplifies the economic restructuring imposed by imperialism, making colonized regions dependent on the colonizer.

Suez Canal

completed in 1869

a crucial strategic waterway in Egypt during the Modern period, significantly shortening trade routes between Europe and Asia and becoming a key target of British imperialism to secure their interests and maintain access to their colonies.

Afrikaners

descendants of Dutch settlers in South Africa, developed a distinct identity and clashed with British imperialism during the Boer War (1899-1902) in the Modern period, ultimately establishing a system of racial segregation known as apartheid in the mid-20th century.

The Scramble for Africa

the intense competition among European powers during the Modern period (roughly 1880-1914) to colonize and control vast territories of Africa, formalized by agreements made at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. This led to the arbitrary division of the continent and had long-lasting consequences.

Belgian Congo

Congo under King Leopold II during the Modern period serves as a stark example of brutal imperialism, where the indigenous population was subjected to forced labor and horrific violence to extract ivory and rubber, highlighting the human cost of European colonization.

The Berlin Conference

1884-1885

a significant event in the Modern period where European powers, without African representation, established the rules for the Scramble for Africa, partitioning the continent and ignoring existing political boundaries, the consequences of which continue to influence African politics.

the Zulu

these people formed a powerful kingdom in Southern Africa that initially resisted British settler colonies and imperialism during the Modern period, engaging in significant conflicts like the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, demonstrating African resistance to European expansion.

French West Africa

a large federation of French colonies established during the Modern period, encompassing territories like Senegal and Mali, where French imperialism exerted political and economic control, aiming at economic exploitation and cultural assimilation.

settler colonies

these colonies in Africa during the Modern period, such as Algeria under French rule and South Africa under British and Afrikaner control, attracted large numbers of European migrants who often displaced indigenous populations and established systems of political and economic dominance, leading to prolonged conflict.

Boer War

(1899-1902)

war in Southern Africa during the Modern period was fought between the British Empire and the Afrikaners (Boers) over control of territory and resources, highlighting the conflicts arising from European imperialism and settler colonies, and ultimately shaping the future of racial politics in South Africa.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

(c. 1743-1803)

was a formerly enslaved man who became the leader of the Haitian Revolution.

instrumental in the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), the only successful slave revolt that led to the founding of a nation. His military and political acumen in leading the Haitian people against French, Spanish, and British forces makes him a pivotal figure in the history of abolition and anti-colonial movements, inspiring other struggles for independence in Latin America.

Haitian Revolution

(1791-1804)

led by figures like Toussaint L’Ouverture, was a successful slave revolt that resulted in the establishment of the first free black republic in the world, inspiring other independence movements in Latin America against European imperialism.

Simon Bolivar

(1783-1830)

a key figure in the early 19th century, was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a crucial role in the independence movements of several South American countries, 1 articulating his vision in the “Letter from Jamaica.” His efforts were crucial in ending Spanish colonial rule.

Jose de San Martin

(1778-1850)

an Argentine general and a key figure in the early 19th century

was instrumental in the independence movements of Argentina, Chile, and Peru, collaborating with Simon Bolivar to liberate South America from Spanish colonial rule.

Hidalgo

a Mexican Catholic priest, initiated the Mexican War of Independence in 1810 with his Grito de Dolores, mobilizing indigenous and mestizo populations against Spanish colonial rule, marking the beginning of Mexican nationalism.

Letter from Jamaica

(1815)

was written by Simon Bolivar, outlining his vision for a unified and independent Spanish America, reflecting the burgeoning nationalist sentiments in the region and providing a key primary source for understanding the goals of independence leaders.

caudillos

regional military leaders who gained power in Latin America during the 19th century, often after the independence movements, establishing authoritarian rule and hindering the consolidation of stable national governments, as seen in post-Bolivarian South America. Their rise contributed to political instability.

export-led economies

Many Latin American nations developed these economies during the 19th century, focusing on the production and export of raw materials like coffee in Brazil and beef in Buenos Aires, making them economically dependent on industrialized nations and hindering their own industrial development.

Porfirio Diaz

1876 to 1911

ruled Mexico as a dictator, fostering economic growth through foreign investment but at the cost of social inequality and political repression, ultimately leading to the Mexican Revolution. His long rule and the subsequent revolution are crucial for understanding Mexican history.

Francisco Madero

initiated the Mexican Revolution in 1910 by challenging the long-standing dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz, advocating for democratic reforms and sparking a decade of upheaval.

Emiliano Zapata

a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, mobilizing peasants in the south of Mexico with his call for land reform encapsulated in the slogan "Tierra y Libertad" (Land and Liberty), highlighting the social and economic grievances that fueled the revolution.

The Enlightenment

1685 – 1815

an influential intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and human rights, building upon the Scientific Revolution and profoundly impacting political thought, as seen in the writings of the philosophes and the development of ideas like natural rights.

tabula rasa

(Latin for "blank slate") was a concept popularized by Enlightenment philosopher John Locke, arguing that individuals are born without innate ideas and that knowledge comes solely from experience, a direct challenge to the idea of inherent social hierarchies and a foundation for emphasizing education and environment in shaping human development.

Montesquieu

(1689-1755) was a French philosophe of the Enlightenment who advocated for the separation of powers in government, as outlined in his work "The Spirit of the Laws" (1748), influencing the development of constitutionalism and the structure of governments in the United States and elsewhere.

Voltaire

(1694-1778) was a French philosophe of the Enlightenment known for his advocacy of freedom of speech, religious toleration, and his criticism of religious intolerance and absolute monarchy, making him a key figure in the intellectual ferment leading to the French Revolution. He also embraced deism.

Rousseau

(1712-1778) was a Genevan philosophe of the Enlightenment who emphasized the concept of the social contract and the general will, arguing that legitimate government derives from the consent of the governed, ideas that significantly influenced the French Revolution and the development of nationalism.

Adam Smith

(1723-1790) was a Scottish Enlightenment economist who advocated for laissez-faire capitalism in his seminal work "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), arguing that free markets and minimal government intervention would lead to economic prosperity.

laissez-faire capitalism

an economic system advocated by Adam Smith during the Enlightenment, emphasizing minimal government intervention in the economy and the operation of free markets driven by supply and demand. This ideology became influential in shaping economic policies in the 19th century.

Mary Wollstonecraft

(1759-1797) was an English writer and philosopher who was a prominent advocate for women's rights during the Enlightenment, arguing in her "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) for the equal education and opportunities for women, a foundational text for later feminist movements.

The Estates General

a French assembly representing the three estates of the realm (clergy, nobility, and commoners) that was convened by Louis XVI in 1789 to address France's financial crisis, but its contentious proceedings led to the formation of The National Assembly and the beginning of the French Revolution.

Louis XVI

(1754-1793) was the King of France whose ineffective leadership and inability to address France's deep financial and social problems led to the French Revolution. He was eventually overthrown and executed by The Radical Revolution.

The National Assembly

formed in June 1789 by representatives of the Third Estate (commoners) after being locked out of the Estates General. This act marked a decisive break from the old regime and the beginning of the French Revolution, leading to the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

adopted by the French National Assembly in August 1789, was a foundational document of the French Revolution that proclaimed the equality of all men, asserted natural rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, and enshrined principles of popular sovereignty, heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideals.

The Reign of Terror

(1793-1794) was a period of extreme violence during the French Revolution, led by Maximillian Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, where thousands of perceived enemies of the revolution were executed in the name of safeguarding the republic.

Saint-Domingue

a French colony in the Caribbean that experienced a major slave revolt influenced by the French Revolution's ideals of liberty and equality, ultimately leading to the Haitian Revolution(1791-1804) under the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture.

Napoleon Bonaparte

(1769-1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and ruled France as First Consul (1799-1804) and Emperor (1804-1814, 1815). His military campaigns across Europe and the establishment of The Grand Empire spread French revolutionary ideas and fostered nationalism, while his defeat at Waterloo marked the end of his dominance.

The Civil Code

(Napoleonic Code), established in France under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1804, was a unified legal system that enshrined principles of equality before the law, religious toleration, and the abolition of feudal privileges, influencing legal systems across Europe and beyond.

The Grand Empire

The Grand Empire was the vast European empire built by Napoleon Bonaparte through military conquests in the early 19th century. While short-lived, it spread French revolutionary ideals and legal reforms, and its resistance to French rule fueled nationalism in many parts of Europe.

Waterloo

the site of the final battle in 1815 where Napoleon Bonaparte was decisively defeated by a coalition of European forces led by Britain and Prussia, marking the end of his Hundred Days return to power and the definitive end of the Napoleonic era.

abolition of slavery

a significant social and political movement in the 19th century, driven by Enlightenment ideals of human rights and the efforts of abolitionists in Britain (slavery abolished in the British Empire in 1833), the United States (after the Civil War), and elsewhere in the Americas.

The Industrial Revolution

1760-1840

a period of major technological and economic transformation that began in Great Britain in the late 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and North America in the 19th century, characterized by new energy sources like the steam engine, innovations like the telegraph and locomotive, and the rise of the factory system, leading to urbanization and the emergence of new social classes.

steam engine

invented by James Watt in the late 18th century and further developed in the 19th century, was a revolutionary power source that fueled the Industrial Revolution, driving machinery in factories, powering locomotives and steamships, and transforming production and transportation.

telegraph

developed in the early to mid-19th century (Samuel Morse's system), was a revolutionary communication technology that allowed for rapid long-distance transmission of information, facilitating business, government, and news dissemination during the Industrial Revolution.

factory system

this system was a new method of manufacturing that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, concentrating labor and machinery in centralized workplaces (factories) powered by new energy sources like the steam engine, leading to mass production and a shift away from cottage industry.

locomotive

a steam-powered engine that pulled trains, was a transformative invention of the Industrial Revolution, revolutionizing transportation by enabling the efficient movement of goods and people over land, contributing to urbanization and economic growth.

urbanization

a significant social consequence of the Industrial Revolution, as people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of work in factories, leading to rapid growth of urban populations, to overcrowding, social problems, and the development of new urban infrastructures.

bourgeoisie

industrial middle class

a new social class that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, comprising factory owners, managers, merchants, and professionals who benefited from industrial growth and often held liberal political views.

proletariat

industrial working class

was another new social class that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, consisting of factory workers who faced harsh working conditions, low wages, and often lived in overcrowded and unsanitary urban environments, leading to the rise of socialism and trade unions.

socialism

a political and economic ideology that emerged in response to the perceived injustices of capitalism during the Industrial Revolution, advocating for greater social equality, collective ownership of the means of production, and government intervention in the economy to improve the lives of the industrial working class. Marxism became a particularly influential form of socialism.

trade unions

organizations formed by workers in the industrial working class to collectively bargain with employers for better wages, working conditions, and job security. They became increasingly important in advocating for workers' rights during the 19th century.

The Second Industrial Revolution

1780- 1914

began in the late 19th century, was characterized by new technologies like the internal combustion engine, electricity, and steel, leading to further industrial growth, new industries (like automobiles and chemicals), and new forms of business organization.

internal combustion engine

engine developed in the late 19th century, revolutionized transportation, leading to the invention of automobiles and airplanes, and further fueled industrial growth during The Second Industrial Revolution.

The Revolutions of 1848

1848

a series of widespread but ultimately unsuccessful liberal and nationalist uprisings across Europe, driven by demands for constitutional government, greater political participation, and national unification, highlighting the continued tension between conservative forces and liberal and nationalist aspirations.

failed but got close enough to inspire reform and new revolutions

Cavour and Garibaldi

Count Camillo Benso di ______ was the prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia who used strategic alliances and diplomacy, while Giuseppe _______ was a nationalist revolutionary who led volunteer forces, playing key roles in the unification of Italy in the mid-19th century.

Otto von Bismarck

(1815-1898)

the conservative prime minister of Prussia who skillfully used Realpolitik (practical politics) and nationalism to orchestrate the unification of Germany in 1871 through a series of strategic wars.

Louis Pasteur

(1822-1895)

a French chemist and microbiologist whose discoveries in germ theory and the development of pasteurization and vaccines had a revolutionary impact on medicine and public health during the 19th century.

Crimean War

(1853-1856)

was a conflict fought primarily in the Crimean Peninsula between Russia and an alliance of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. Russia's defeat exposed its military and technological backwardness compared to Western powers and spurred reforms like the Emancipation of serfs.

Trans-Siberian Railroad

a vast railway network constructed across Russia from 1891 to 1916, connecting Moscow with the Russian Far East and the Pacific Ocean.

shows russia’s industrialization

pogroms

organized, often violent, attacks on Jewish communities, particularly prevalent in the Russian Empire during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

a critical example of the intense antisemitism in Eastern Europe and the persecution faced by Jewish people. These attacks, sometimes tacitly encouraged by authorities, led to significant loss of life, property destruction, and forced emigration of Jews, contributing to the rise of Zionism as a movement advocating for a Jewish homeland as a refuge from such violence. The pogroms highlight the social and political vulnerabilities of minority groups in an era of intense nationalism.

Balkan nationalism

refers to the rise of nationalist movements among the various ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula during the 19th and early 20th centuries, seeking independence from the declining Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary.

a major destabilizing force in Europe, contributing to the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the internal tensions within Austria-Hungary, a multi-ethnic empire. The competing nationalist aspirations and territorial claims of groups like Serbs, Bulgarians, and Greeks led to the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) and ultimately played a significant role in the outbreak of World War I with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist.

Zionism

a nationalist movement that emerged in the late 19th century, primarily among European Jews, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine as a response to widespread antisemitism and persecution, including pogroms in Eastern Europe.

example of the impact of nationalism and religious persecution in the 19th and 20th centuries. Fueled by the desire for self-determination and a safe haven, it gained momentum in response to events like the Dreyfus Affair in France and the pogroms in Russia. The movement ultimately led to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, a development with profound and lasting consequences for the Middle East.

Austria-Hungary

a large, multi-ethnic empire in Central and Eastern Europe that existed from 1867 to 1918. It was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty and encompassed a diverse range of nationalities, including Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Croats, Serbs, and others.

a major power in Europe whose internal tensions, fueled by Balkan nationalism and the desire for self-determination among its various ethnic groups, contributed significantly to the instability of the region. Its alliance system and its ultimatum to Serbia after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand were direct triggers for the outbreak of World War I, leading to the empire's eventual disintegration.

Lin Zexu

(1785-1850)

a prominent Chinese official during the Qing Dynasty who is best known for his strong stance against the opium trade. In 1839, he was appointed imperial commissioner in Guangzhou (Canton) and took decisive action to confiscate and destroy large quantities of opium being illegally imported by British merchants, an event that directly led to the Opium War.

Opium War

(1839-1842)

a conflict between Great Britain and Qing Dynasty China, primarily triggered by China's efforts to suppress the lucrative but illegal opium trade conducted by British merchants. Britain's superior naval and military technology led to a decisive Chinese defeat, resulting in the signing of the unequal Treaty of Nanjing.

Treaty of Nanjing

(1842)

the treaty that concluded the Opium War. It was the first of the unequal treaties imposed on China by Western powers and marked a significant turning point in China's relationship with the West. Key terms included the opening of five treaty ports to British trade (including Hong Kong), the cession of Hong Kong to Britain, the imposition of a large indemnity on China, and the granting of extraterritoriality to British subjects in China.

Taiping Rebellion

(1850-1864)

a massive and devastating internal rebellion against the Qing Dynasty in China. Led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ, the Taipings sought to establish a new "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace" with radical social and religious reforms. The rebellion caused immense destruction and loss of life before it was finally suppressed with the help of regional armies and Western powers.

self-strengthening

(c. 1861-1895)

a movement of institutional reforms initiated by Qing Dynasty officials in response to internal rebellions like the Taiping Rebellion and external threats from Western powers. The aim was to modernize China's military and industry by adopting Western technology while preserving Confucian values. However, the movement faced internal resistance and was ultimately limited in its success.

spheres of influence

In the late 19th century, as China weakened, various Western powers (Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Japan) carved out spheres of influence within China. These were regions where a particular foreign power held significant economic and political privileges, including exclusive trading rights and railway construction, further eroding Chinese sovereignty.

Cixi

(1835-1908)

was a powerful and influential Dowager Empress who effectively controlled the Qing Dynasty government for much of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. While initially supporting some self-strengthening reforms, she later became more conservative and played a key role in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion. Her rule is often seen as hindering effective modernization in China.

The Boxer Rebellion

(1899-1901)

an anti-foreign, anti-Christian uprising in China led by a secret society known as the Boxers. Fueled by resentment against foreign influence and missionary activities, the Boxers attacked foreigners and Chinese Christians. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by a multinational force of Western powers and Japan, leading to further humiliation and concessions for the Qing Dynasty.

Puyi

(1906-1967) was the last emperor of China. He ascended the throne as a child and was eventually forced to abdicate following the Revolution of 1911, marking the end of the Qing Dynasty and the imperial era in China.

Matthew Perry

(1794-1858)

a United States Navy Commodore who played a crucial role in ending Japan's sakoku policy. In 1853, he led a squadron of heavily armed steamships into Edo Bay, delivering a letter from President Fillmore demanding that Japan open its ports to trade with the United States. His forceful arrival and the demonstration of American naval power shocked the Japanese and ultimately led to the signing of treaties opening Japan to the West.

The Meiji Restoration

(1868)

a pivotal event in Japanese history that marked the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the restoration of imperial rule under Emperor Meiji. It was a period of rapid and radical modernization, as Japan adopted Western technology, institutions, and ideas in a drive to become a strong, industrialized nation and avoid the fate of China.

The Tokugawa shogunate's isolationist policies, coupled with the arrival of Commodore Perry's fleet in 1853, exposed the weaknesses of the existing system. This, combined with internal issues like a weakening feudal system and rising class tensions, led to a movement to restore the emperor to power and establish a more centralized, modern government. 

zaibatsu

large industrial and financial conglomerates that emerged in Japan during the Meiji Restoration. Often family-controlled, these powerful corporations played a key role in Japan's rapid state-sponsored industrialization, dominating various sectors of the economy. Examples include Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, and Yasuda.

State sponsored industrialization

Recognizing the need to modernize quickly to compete with Western powers, the Meiji government actively promoted and guided state-sponsored industrialization. They invested heavily in infrastructure, established state-owned factories (later often sold to zaibatsu), and brought in foreign experts to train Japanese engineers and workers in Western technologies.

the Diet

the newly established bicameral legislature of Japan created under the Meiji Constitution in 1889. While it represented a move towards a constitutional monarchy, its powers were initially limited, with significant authority remaining with the emperor and his advisors. However, the Diet gradually gained influence over time.

Sino-Japanese War

(1894-1895)

a conflict between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan over influence in Korea. Japan's modern military decisively defeated China, resulting in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which ceded Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan and further highlighted China's weakness in the face of Western-style modernization.

Russo-Japanese War

(1904-1905)

a conflict between Russia and Meiji Japan over control of Manchuria and Korea. Japan's victory was a major turning point in world history, marking the first time a non-Western power had defeated a major European power in modern times. It significantly boosted Japan's international prestige and influence in East Asia.

Dutch East Indies

the vast colonial territory controlled by the Netherlands through the VOC and later the Dutch government. The Modern period saw the consolidation and expansion of Dutch control over the archipelago, with a focus on resource extraction and the establishment of a colonial administration.

French Indochina

a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia, comprising present-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. France gradually established control over these regions throughout the 19th century, creating a colonial administration and exploiting the resources of the area.