Studied by 2 people
memory
persistance of learning over time through the encoding, storage + retreival of info.
ex. remembering sounds, songs, tastes, smells, textures, faces, places
info - processing models
analogies that compare human memory to a computer’s operations
encoding
processing of info into memory systems
storage
retaining info gained from encoding over time
retrieval
getting info out of memory storage
parallel/ dual processing
simultaneously processing a multitude of sensory input
ex. walking into a lunchroom
connectionism
viewing memories as products of interconnected neural networks
richard atkinson + robert shiffrin
proposed a 3 step memory processing model
sensory memory
immediate + brief recording of instant sensory info
short term memory
activated memory that holds info briefly before it gets encoded and stored or forgotten
ex. phone digits of someone new before dialing #
long term memory
relatively permanent + limitless storehouse of memory system
baddeley + working memory
newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on active, consious processing + links it to long term memory
explicit memories (declaritive )
the facts + exp. we can consciously know + declare
encoding done thru conscious, effortful processing
effortful processing
encoding that requires conscious effort + attention
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental info
ex. space, time + frequency + well learned info
implicit memory ( non-declaritive)
retention independent of conscious recollection
procedural memory for automatic skills + assosiations
ex. riding a bike
space (ex. while studying, visualizing info on page)
time (ex. automatically noting sequence of daily events)
frequency (ex. keeping track of how many times things happen)
sensory memory
feeds our working memory
ex. recording momentary images of scenes or echoes of sounds
george spalding exp.
ran an exp. where he flashed 9 words + then asked to recall all 9 - 50% success rate
then played pitch assosiated w/ row he wanted them to recall - 100% recall
iconic memory
fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli ( tenth of a second)
echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli ( 3 - 4 s)
george miller + magic #
short term memory can retain about 7 info bits ( give or take 2 )
idea that info disappears quickly from memory w/o rehearsal
working memory capacity
varies, depending on ag, intelligence level + other factors
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically and enables easier recall
mnemonics
memory aids, esp those techniques that use vivid imagery + organizational devices
peg-word mnemonic system
harness superior visual-imagery skill; memorize jingle
hierarchies
few broad concepts subdivided into narrower areas
spacing effect
tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than massed study or practice
repeated self-testing - way to distribute learning cramming
herban ebbinghaus
founder of the retention/ forgetting curve = increased frequency of learning = lower # of repetition required
said that “those who learn quickly also forget quickly” - cramming
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieval/ recall rather than reading info
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on structure or appearence of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on meaning of words - better retention
episodic memories
specific memory of everyday events that can be stated or conjured (esp. unique personal exp. )
ex. time + place of a b-day + detailed info about it
semantic memories
general world knowledge + meanings of words in a language
procedural memories
often unexplained knowledge of how to do things
ex. riding a bike, walking, talking, tieing shoes
self reference effect
we easily remember material that is personally meaningful
memory storage
capacity for storing ltm is essentially limitless
role of frontal lobe
network that processes + stores explicit memory w/ hippocampus
working memory resides here
left - recalling passwords; right - visual + spatial info
hippocampus
nueral center that helps process explicit memory for storage; acts as a loading dock for info to be transferred into storage later
left - verbal info; right - spatial info
info is not permanently stored
effect of sleep
sleep supports memory consolidation during deep (NREM-3) sleep
hippocampus processes memories for later retrieval + transfers them to cortex for storage
role of cerebellum
plays a key role in forming + storing implicit memories
ex. classical conditioning ( damage - inability to form connections)
role of basal ganglia
deep brain structures involved in motor movement; faciliate formation of procedural memory for skills
ex. bike riding
role of amygdala
emotional arousal + stress hormones trigger the release of glucose to boost memory formation
vivid recollection of traumatic exp.
weaker emotions = weaker memories
flashbulb memories
clear memory of an emotionally significant event/ moment
heightened emotions = stronger memories but continued can disrupt memory + not free of error
physical basis of memory
how info becomes embedded in brain matter
study of synaptic meeting place where neurons communicate w/ neurotransmitter
eric kandel
observed synaptic changes during learning in sea slug neurons
when learning occurs, slug releases more serotonin into synapses that then become more efficient at transmission
long term potentiation (LTP)
as increase in cells firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
neural basis for learning + memory
after - passing an electrical current won’t disrupt old memories but wipe out very recent ones
ex. amnesia, blow to the head, loss of consciousness
working memory doesnt have time to bring info over to long term memory
recall
retrieving memory from storage or previously learned
recognition
identifying items previosly learned
relearning
learning smth more quickly if learned a second or later time
priming
activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory like the senses ( “wakening of assosiations”)
ex. pronounce shop then ask what do u do at a green light - stop
state dependent mem
what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled in same state
ex. forgetting what is learned when drunk
mood congruent mem
tendency to recall memories + exp. consistent w/ current mood
ex. depressed teens percieve other things as gloomy + sad memories
serial position effect
tendency to recall best the last + first items in a list
primacy effect
first items in a list are more easily recalled - more time spent rehearsing
recency effect
last items in a list are more easily recalled - still in working memory
anterograde amnesia
ability to recall the past but inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall info. from the past but able to form new memories
repression + freud (motivated forgetting)
then - basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness, anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings + memories
now - belief that forgetting unwanted neural info is true but difficulty w/ forgetting emotional events - intrusive memory
forgetting curve
curve that shows that course of forgetting is initially rapid then levels off w/ the gradual fading of the physical mem trace
proactive interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info.
ex. past passwords interfere w/ newly learned ones
retroactive interference
when new info. disruts the rcall of old, stored info.
ex. trouble remembering lyrics of old song
if info is learned an hour before sleep, it is protected
misinformation effect (elizabeth loftus)
incorporation of misleading info. into ones memory of event can influence later behavior + actions
even a vivd reteeling of an event or imagining nonexistent events or actions can implant false memories
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experiences, heard about, read about or imagined ( at the heart of false memories)
ex. unintentional plagarism
deja vu
eerie sense of having exp. the same moment or seeing it unfold
familiarity w/ a stimulus (cues) may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier exp
temporal lobe processing before hippo + frontal lobe causes out of sync processing
decay theory
all memories are dependent of + fade w/ time
memories are like traces + bonds weaken (forgetting)
interference theory
one memory disrupts the learning of other, esp. if similar
maintenance rehearsal
repetition of same info encountered, in an attempt to commit it into short term memory ( easily forgotten)
elaborative memory
contextualization of info into LTM for better storage + retrieval
tip-of-tongue phenomenon
feeling of knowing info but inability to recall said info
eidetic memory
photographic memory (recall image w/ high precision)
false memory syndrome
seeming to remember emotional events that never occured
distributive practice
practice broken up into # of short sessions over time
engram
offline physical and/or chemical changes elicited by learning that produce a memory trace
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