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Habituates
Decreased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
Learning
The process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience.
Associative Learning
Learning that certain events occur together; may involve classical or operant conditioning.
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Respondent Behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.
Operant Behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences.
Cognitive Learning
Acquisition of mental information through observation, imitation, or language.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist known for his work on classical conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
John B. Watson
Psychologist who established behaviorism and emphasized classical conditioning.
Behaviorism
The theory that psychology should focus on observable behaviors and their environmental determinants.
Neutral Stimuli
Stimulus that initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention.
Unconditioned Response
A natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without conditioning.
Conditioned Response
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a conditioned response.
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning where a response is established.
Higher-Order Conditioning
A process where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response when reinforcement or pairing ceases.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.
Generalization
The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Discrimination
The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.
Operant Conditioning
Learning process in which behavior is influenced by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.
Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur, and punished behavior is less likely to recur.
Operant Chamber
A controlled environment used to study operant conditioning with animals (Skinner box).
Reinforcement
Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behavior.
Shaping
A process of reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.
Discriminative Stimulus
A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement or punishment.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.
Primary Reinforcement
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as food or water.
Reinforcement Schedules
Rules that define how often a desired response will be reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time, leading to slower extinction.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
Reinforces behavior after a set number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
Reinforces behavior after a random number of responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Reinforces behavior after a fixed time period.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Reinforces behavior at unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment
An event that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Biofeedback
A technique for gaining control over physiological functions using monitoring devices.
Preparedness
The biological predisposition to learn certain associations.
Instinctive Drift
The tendency of learned behavior to revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Intrinsic Motivation
The desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation
The desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid punishment.
Problem-Focused Coping
Addressing the stressor directly to reduce or eliminate it.
Emotion-Focused Coping
Reducing stress by managing emotional responses rather than addressing the problem.
Personal Control
The extent to which people perceive control over their environment.
Learned Helplessness
Passive resignation developed from repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.
External Locus of Control
The perception that external factors or chance determine one's fate.
Internal Locus of Control
The perception that one controls their own fate.
Self-Control
The ability to regulate impulses and delay gratification.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others.
Modeling
The process of imitating a specific behavior observed in others.
Mirror Neurons
Brain cells that fire when performing or observing an action, enabling imitation and empathy.
Albert Bandura
Psychologist known for social learning theory and the Bobo doll experiment.
Prosocial Behavior
Positive, helpful, and constructive behavior.
Antisocial Behavior
Harmful, aggressive, or destructive behavior.
Structural Encoding
Encoding information based on its physical structure, such as appearance.
Phonemic Encoding
Encoding information based on its sound.
Phonological Loop
Part of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information.
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.
Autobiographical Memory
Memory of one's personal life experiences.
Memory
The ability to store and retrieve information over time.
Flashbulb Memories
Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.
Encoding
The process of inputting information into memory.
Storage
The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval
The process of accessing stored information.
Sensory Memory
Brief storage of sensory information.
Short-Term Memory
Memory that holds a few items briefly before they are forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent and limitless storage of information.
Working Memory
Active processing of incoming information and its manipulation.
Automatically Process
Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Rehearsal
Conscious repetition of information to encode it.
Spacing Effect
Distributed practice leads to better long-term retention than massed practice.
Ebbinghaus
Psychologist who discovered the forgetting curve and spacing effect.
Next-In-Line-Effect
Tendency to forget information just before one's turn.
Serial Position Effect
Tendency to recall the first and last items in a list best.
Visual Encoding
Encoding information based on images.
Acoustic Encoding
Encoding information based on sound.
Semantic Encoding
Encoding information based on meaning.
Imagery
Mental pictures used to aid memory.
Mnemonic
Memory aids, often using vivid imagery or organizational devices.
Chunking
Organizing information into manageable units.
Hierarchies
Organizing information into broad categories that are subdivided.
Iconic Memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.
Echoic Memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.
Long-Term Potentiation
The strengthening of neural connections as a basis for learning and memory.
Amnesia
Loss of memory due to injury or disease.
Implicit Memory
Retention of skills or conditioned behaviors independent of conscious recollection.
Explicit Memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall.
Hippocampus
Brain structure involved in processing explicit memories.
Cerebellum
Brain structure important for implicit memory and motor learning.
Recall
Retrieving information without external cues.
Recognize
Identifying previously learned information from a list.
Relearning
Faster reacquisition of information learned previously.
Priming
Activation of certain associations in memory, often unconsciously.
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