English AS Level - Language Levels

Linguistics

the study of language

Phonology

the study of the sound system

Phonetics

the physical production and reception of sound

Lexis

the vocabulary of a language

Semantics

the meanings of words and expressions

Grammar

the structural aspects of language that tie language together

Syntax

the order of words

Morphology

the elements added to words to show their grammatical order

Pragmatics

assumptions made about what is meant from what is said or written

Graphology

all the visual aspects of textual design

Repertoire

the range of language form used by a speaker

Received Pronunciation (RP)

an accent traditionally associated with high social status

Prosody

the melody our voices create via rhythm and intonation

Paralanguage

the non-lexical component of communication by speech, for example intonation, pitch and speed of speaking, hesitation noises, gesture, and facial expression

Accent variation

the way accents vary between different speakers

Language acquisition

the development of language within an individual

New communication tools

forms of computer based or digital communication

Referent

the thing or person that is being referred to

Constructed dialogue

dialogue that is artificially created rather than occurring naturally

Synonyms

words that have a similar meaning

Connotations

the associations we have for a word or phrase

Style

a distinctive way of speaking or writing for different conexts

Register

a form of specialist language

Semantic field

a group of terms from the same domain

Morpheme

an element of meaning smaller than a word - “un-” “-ed” “-able”

Lingua franca

a common language between speakers

Euphemism

an indirect form of language that speakers use to avoid being offensive - “no longer with us” (dead)

Denotation

the literal meaning

Metaphor

a figure of speech that compares two unrelated things

Idiom

an expression that the overall meaning of does not depend on the literal meanings of the words it contains

Premodification

information added before the main item

Postmodification

information added after the main item

Cohesion

the way sentences join together to form a whole text

Conjunction

a word that joins elements together

Clause

grammatical units that can be main clauses or subordinate clauses

Pronoun

words that can stand in the place of nouns

Adverb

words that give more information about the verbs

Ellipsis

the omission of elements in a sentence or utterance - increase imagination or showcase informality of conversation

Utterance

a unit of spoken language

Minor sentence

a sentence without a main verb

Interlocutor

people engaging in a spoken interaction

Politeness

an aspect of pragmatics that refers to the cultural rules and regulates how social relationships are negotiated

Turntaking

the way participants take turns at talking

Reinforcement

a word or speech noise produced by a listener to encourage the speaker to continue - “right”, “mhm”, “no way”

Pre-closing

an item a speaker will produce to show that they want to close the conversation - “well i must go now”, “i have to go *action*”

Closing

items that conclude an interaction - “goodbye”, “see you later”

Vague completer

a way of completing an utterance that stops it from sounding too abrupt

Filler

a word or speech noise produced to create some thinking time

Monitoring feature

an element produced by the speaker to check the attention of the listener

False start

beginning an utterance then stopping and beginning it again

Identity

appearing as a certain kind of person or group member

Modal Verbs

verbs that accompany main verbs and express certainty, desirability, or obligation (would, could, should, etc) - hedges, or weakens, the certainty of a sentence

Modifiers

add information (adverbs and adjectives)

Emoji

a special type of emoticon - provide clarity

Audience construction

how audiences are constructed through the language chosen by the writer or speaker

Rhetorical question

a question asked for a persuasive effect and not requiring an answer

Possessive determiners

pronouns to help determine what a noun refers to

Active voice

the subject performs the verb, tends to reveal or emphasize the actor of the sentence, makes your writing more direct, clear, and engaging, as it emphasizes the doer of the action

Passive voice

the subject receives the action, tends to obscure or de-emphasize the actor, focus would be on the action or the object rather than the doer

Complex sentence

a sentence involving at least one main clause and a subordinate clause

Alliteration

repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words - creates emotive and engaging effect

Assonance

repetition of vowel sounds within words - creates rhythm

Colloquialism

informal language or slang

Hyperbole

exaggeration that creates emphasis or effect

Imagery

descriptive language that engages the senses and create relatability

Motif

a recurring theme or idea in a work - emphasize and reinforce the main ideas

Personification

giving human characteristics to non human objects or concepts - help readers connect with the parts of a story or poem that aren't the characters

Simile

a comparison using "like" or "as”

Preposition

a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time, place, location - provides clarity and further description

Homophones

words that sound the same but have different meanings or spellings - to amuse, mislead, or create several meanings

Compound sentences

a sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction

Pathos

an element to appeal to the audiences emotions - use of emotive language which may persuade the audience

Ethos

an element to appeal to the speakers or writers credibility and trustworthiness - a doctor advertising a medical product

Logos

an element to appeal to logical reasoning or facts - using statistics and data

Interrogatives

questions

Declaratives

statements

Imperatives

commands or instructions

Tag questions

a short clause added to statements to make them questions and confirm or provide clarity - “isnt she?” “did you?”

Exclamatory sentences

sentences that contain strong emotion