Chapter 1: Prehistoric Art

Key Notes

• Time Period
  • Paleolithic Art : 30,000–8000 B.C.E.
  • Neolithic Art : 8000–3000 B.C.E.
• Culture, beliefs, and physical settings
  • Prehistoric art existed before writing.
  • Prehistoric art has been affected by climate change.
  • Prehistoric art can be seen in practical and ritual objects.
  • Prehistoric art shows an awareness of everything from cosmic phenomena to the commonplace.
• Art-making
  • The oldest objects are African or Asian.
  • The first art forms appear as rock paintings, geometric patterns, human and animal motifs, and architectural monuments.
  • Ceramics are first produced in Asia.
  • The people of the Pacific are migrants from Asia, who bring ceramic-making techniques with them.
  • European cave paintings and megalithic monuments indicate a strong tradition of rituals.
  • Early American objects use natural materials, like bone or clay, to create ritual objects.
  • Similarities with Asian shamanic religious practices can be found in ritual ancient American objects.
• Art history
  • Scientific dating of objects has shed light on the use of prehistoric objects.
  • Archaeology increases our understanding of prehistoric art.
  • Archaeology: the scientific study of ancient people and cultures principally revealed through excavation
  • Basic art historical methods can be used to understand prehistoric art, but our knowledge increases with findings made in other fields.

Prehistoric Background

• Two Eras in Pre-History
  • Paleolithic Era: the Old Stone Age
  • People were hunter-gatherers
  • Neolithic Era: the New Stone Age
  • People cultivated the earth and raised livestock.
  • They lived in organized settlements, divided labor into occupations, and constructed the first homes.
• People created before they could write, cipher math, cultivate crops, domesticate animals, invent the wheel, or use metal.
• They painted before they had anything resembling clothes or lived in anything resembling a house.
• The need to create is among the strongest of human impulses.

Prehistoric Sculpture

➼ Camelid Sacrum in the Shape of a Canine

• Details

  • 14,000–7000 B.C.E.
  • From Tequixquiac, Central Mexico
  • Located at the National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City, Mexico
  • Preserved in 1870 in the Valley of Mexico.

• Materials

  • Bone sculpture from a camel-like animal.
  • The bone has been worked to create the image of a dog or wolf.

• Content

  • Carved to represent a mammal’s skull.
  • One natural form is used to take the shape of another.
  • The sacrum is the triangular bone at the base of a spine.

• Context

  • Second skull: A Mesoamerican idea
  • The sacrum bone symbolizes the soul in some cultures, and for that reason it may have been chosen for this work.

• Image

  

➼ Anthropomorphic Stele

• Details

  • 4th-millennium B.C.E.
  • From Arabian Peninsula
  • Mainly made of sandstone
  • Preserved in National Museum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

• Stele: an upright stone slab used to mark a grave or a site

• Form and Content

  • Anthropomorphic: having characteristics of the human form, although the form itself is not human.
  • Belted robe from which hangs a double-bladed knife or sword.
  • Double cords stretch diagonally across body with an awl unifying them.

• Function: Religious or burial purpose, perhaps as a grave marker.

• Context

  • One of the earliest known works of art from Arabia.
  • Found in an area that had extensive ancient trade routes.

• Image

  

➼ Jade Cong

• Details

  • c. 3300–2200 B.C.E.
  • From Liangzhu, China
  • Made from a carved jade
  • Preserved in Shanghai Museum, Shanghai, China
  • Cong: a tubular object with a circular hole cut into a square-like cross-section

• Form

  • The circular hole is placed within a square.
  • Abstract designs; the main decoration is a face pattern, perhaps of spirits or deities.
  • Some have a haunting mask design in each of the four corners—with a bar-shaped mouth, raised oval eyes, sunken round pupils, and two bands that might indicate a headdress—which resembles the motif seen on Liangzhu jewelry.

• Materials and Techniques

  • Jade is a very hard stone, sometimes carved using drills or saws.
  • The designs on congs may have been produced by rubbing sand.
  • The jades may have been heated to soften the stone, or ritually burned as part of the burial process.

• Context

  • Jades appear in burials of people of high rank.
  • Jades are placed in burials around bodies; some are broken, and some show signs of intentional burning.
  • Jade religious objects are of various sizes and found in tombs, interred with the dead in elaborate rituals.
  • The Chinese linked jade with the virtues of durability, subtlety, and beauty.
  • Made in the Neolithic era in China.

• Image

  

➼ The Ambum Stone

• Details

  • c. 1500 B.C.E.
  • From Ambum Valley, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea
  • Made from graywacke
  • Preserved in National Gallery of Australia, Canberra

• Form

  • Composite human/animal figure; perhaps an anteater head and a human body.
  • Ridgeline runs from nostrils, over the head, between the eyes, and between the shoulders.

• Theories

  • Masked human.
  • Anteater embryo in a fetal position; anteaters thought of as significant because of their fat deposits.
  • May have been a pestle or related to tool making.
  • Perhaps had a ritual purpose; considered sacred; maybe a ­fertility symbol.
  • Maybe an embodiment of a spirit from the past, an ancestral spirit, or the Rainbow Serpent.

• History

  • Stone Age work; artists used stone to carve stone.
  • Found in the Ambum Valley in Papua New Guinea.
  • When it was “found,” it was being used as a ritual object by the Enga people.
  • Sold to the Australian National Gallery.
  • Damaged in 2000 when it was on loan in France; it was dropped and smashed into three pieces and many shards; it has since been restored.

• Image

  

➼ Tlatilco Female Figurine

• Details

  • c. 1200–900 B.C.E.
  • From Central Mexico, site of Tlatilco
  • Made out of ceramic
  • Preserved in Princeton University Art Museum, Princeton, New Jersey

• Form

  • Flipper-like arms, huge thighs, pronounced hips, narrow waists.
  • Unclothed except for jewelry; arms extending from body.
  • Diminished role of hands and feet.
  • Female figures show elaborate details of hairstyles, clothing, and body ornaments.

• Technique: Made by hand; artists did not use molds.

• Function: May have had a shamanistic function

• Context and Interpretation

  • Some show deformities, including a female figure with two noses, two mouths, and three eyes, perhaps signifying a cluster of conjoined or Siamese twins and/or stillborn children.
  • Bifacial images and congenital defects may express duality.
  • Found in graves, and may have had a funerary context.

• Image

  

➼ Terra cotta fragment

• Details

  • 1000 B.C.E.
  • From Lapita, Reef Islands, Solomon Islands
  • Made from incised terra cotta
  • Preserved in University of Auckland, New ­Zealand

• Form

  • Pacific art is characterized by the use of curved stamped patterns: dots, circles, hatching; may have been inspired by patterns on ­tattoos.
  • One of the oldest human faces in Oceanic art.

• Materials

  • Lapita culture of the Solomon Islands is known for pottery.
  • Outlined forms: they used a comb-like tool to stamp designs onto the clay, known as dentate stamping.

• Technique

  • Did not use potter’s wheel.
  • After pot was incised, a white coral lime was often applied to the surface to make the patterns more pronounced.

• Tradition

  • Continuous tradition: some designs found on the pottery are used in modern Polynesian tattoos and tapas.

• Image

  

Prehistoric Paintings

➼ Apollo 11 Stones

• Details

  • c. 25,500–25,300 B.C.E.
  • Painted using charcoal on stone,
  • Preserved in State Museum of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia

• Form

  • Animal seen in profile, typical of prehistoric painting.
  • Perhaps a composite animal rather than a particular specimen.

• Materials

  • Done with charcoal.

• Context

  • Some of the world’s oldest works of art, found in Wonderwerk Cave in Namibia.
  • Several stone fragments found.
  • Originally brought to the site from elsewhere.
  • Cave is the site of 100,000 years of human activity.

• History

  • Named after the Apollo 11 moon landing in 1969, the year the cave was discovered.

• Image

  

➼ Great Hall of the Bulls

• Details

  • 15,000–13,000 B.C.E.
  • From Paleolithic Europe
  • A rock painting,
  • Found in Lascaux, France

• Content

  • 650 paintings: most common animals are cows, bulls, horses, and deer.

• Form

  • Bodies seen in profile; frontal or diagonal view of horns, eyes, and hooves; some animals appear pregnant.
  • Twisted perspective: many horns appear more frontal than the bodies.
  • Many overlapping figures.

• Materials

  • Natural products were used to make paint: charcoal, iron ore, plants.
  • Walls were scraped to an even surface; paint colors were bound with animal fat; lamps lighted the interior of the caves.
  • No brushes have been found.
  • May have used mats of moss or hair as brushes.
  • Color could have been blown onto the surface by mouth or through a tube, like a hollow bone.

• Context

  • Animals placed deep inside cave—some hundreds of feet from the entrance.
  • Evidence still visible of scaffolding erected to get to higher areas of the caves.
  • Negative handprints: are they signatures?
  • Caves were not dwellings, as prehistoric people led migratory lives following herds of ­animals; some evidence exists that people did seek shelter at the mouths of caves.

• Theories

  • A traditional view is that they were painted to ensure a successful hunt.
  • Ancestral animal worship.
  • Represents narrative elements in stories or legends.
  • Shamanism: a religion based on the idea that the forces of nature can be contacted by intermediaries, called shamans, who go into a trance-like state to reach another state of consciousness.

• History

  • Discovered in 1940; opened to the public after World War II.
  • Closed to the public in 1963 because of damage from human contact.
  • Replica of the caves opened adjacent to the original.

• Image

  

➼ Running Horned Woman

• Details

  • 6000–4000 B.C.E.
  • A pigment on rock,
  • Found in Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria

• Form

  • Composite view of the body.
  • Many drawings exist—some are naturalistic, some are abstract, some have Negroid features, and some have Caucasian features.
  • The female horned figure suggests attendance at a ritual ceremony.

• Content

  • Depicts livestock, wildlife, and humans
  • Dots may reflect body paint applied for ritual or scarification; white patterns in symmetrical lines may reflect raffia garments.

• Context

  • More than 15,000 drawings and engravings were found at this site.
  • At one time the area was grasslands; climate changes have turned it into a desert.
  • The entire site was probably painted by many different groups over large expanses of time.

• Image

  

➼ Beaker with Ibex Motifs

• Details

  • 4200–3500 B.C.E.
  • From Susa, Iran
  • Painted terra cotta
  • Found in ­Louvre, Paris

• Form and Content

  • Frieze of stylized aquatic birds on top, suggesting a flock of birds wading in a Mesopotamian river valley.
  • Below are stylized running dogs with long narrow bodies, perhaps hunting dogs.
  • The main scene shows an ibex with oversized abstract and stylized horns.
  • Stylized: a schematic, nonrealistic manner of representing the visible world and its contents, abstracted from the way that they appear in nature

• Materials and Techniques

  • Probably made on a potter’s wheel, a technological advance; some suggest instead that it was handmade.
  • Thin pottery walls.

• Context and Interpretation

  • In the middle of the horns is a clan symbol of family ownership; perhaps the image identifies the deceased as belonging to a particular group or family.
  • Found near a burial site, but not with human remains.
  • Found with hundreds of baskets, bowls, and metallic items.
  • Made in Susa, in southwestern Iran.

• Image

  

Prehistoric Architecture

• Menhirs: Large individual stones, erected singularly or in long rows stretching into the distance.
• Megaliths: a stone of great size used in the construction of a prehistoric structure
• Henge: a Neolithic monument, characterized by a circular ground plan. Used for rituals and marking astronomical events
• Lintel: a horizontal beam over an opening
• Post and Lintel Architecture: The most fundamental type of architecture in history.

\

➼ Stonehenge

• Details

  • c. 2500–1600 B.C.E.
  • Made out of sandstone, Neolithic Europe,
  • Found in Wiltshire, United Kingdom

• Technique

  • Post-and-lintel building; lintels grooved in place by the mortise and tenon system of construction.
  • Mortise and tenon: a groove cut into stone or wood, called a mortise, that is shaped to receive a tenon, or projection, of the same dimensions
  • Large megaliths in the center are over 20 feet tall and form a horseshoe surrounding a central flat stone.
  • A central horseshoe is surrounded by lintel-connected megaliths.
  • Hundreds of unidentified stones surrounded the monument.
  • Builders lacked wheels and pulleys. Stones may have been transported on logs or a greased sleigh.

• Context

  • Each stone weighs over 50 tons, reflecting the structure's intended permanence.
  • Some stones were imported from over 150 miles away, suggesting they were sacred.

• History

  • Perhaps took 1,000 years to build; gradually redeveloped by succeeding generations.

• Probably built in three phases:

  • First Phase: circular ditch 36 feet deep and 360 feet in diameter containing 56 pits called Aubrey Holes, named after John Aubrey who found them in the 18th century.
  • Today the holes are filled with chalk.
  • Second Phase: wooden structure, perhaps roofed.
  • The Aubrey Holes may have been used as cremation burials at this time.
  • Adult males were buried at these sites, generally, men who did not show a lifetime of hard labor, signifying it was a site for a select group of people.
  • Third Phase: stone construction.

• Tradition

  • British Isles forests may have inspired wood circles.
  • Stone circles are still common in Britain, indicating Neolithic popularity.

• Theories

  • As an observatory, it may predict eclipses and be oriented towards the summer and winter solstices.
  • According to a new theory, elite males were buried at Stonehenge.
  • An alternative theory suggests it was a healing site.

• Image

  

  

  \
  Chapter 2: Ancient Near Eastern Art

\