Motivation

• Motivation: as a process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior

• Instinct:  (also called a fixed action pattern ) is an inherited characteristic common to all members of a species that automatically produces a particular response when the organism is exposed to a particular stimulus.

• Homeostasis: a state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain

• Drives:  states of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension

• Behavioral Activation System(BAS): is roused to action by signals of potential reward and positive need for gratification.

• Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): which responds to stimuli that signal potential pain, nonreinforcement, and punishment

• Expectancy x Value Theory: goal-directed behavior is jointly determined by the strength of the person’s expectation that particular behaviors will lead to a goal and by the incentive value the individual places on that goal

• Extrinsic Motivation: performing an activity to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment

• Self-Actualization: which represents the need to fulfill our potential

• Self-Determination Theory: focuses on three fundamental psychological needs—competence, autonomy, and relatedness—and on how they relate to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

• Metabolism: is the body’s rate of energy (or caloric) utilization

• Set Point:  a biologically determined standard around which body weight (or, more accurately, fat mass) is regulated

• Cholecystokinin (CCK): a peptide (a type of hormone) that helps produce satiety

• Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN): a cluster of neurons packed with receptor sites for various transmitters that stimulate or reduce appetite

• Anorexia nervosa: have an intense fear of being fat and severely restrict their food intake to the point of self-starvation

• Bulimia Nervosa: have a fear of becoming fat, and so people binge-eat and then purge the food

• Sexual Response Cycle: A physiological response to sexual stimulation that involves stages of excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

• Sexual dysfunction:  refers to chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses a person

• Sexual Orientation: refers to one’s emotional and erotic preference for partners of a particular sex

• Social Comparison: involves comparing our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors with those of other people

• Need for Achievement: a positive desire to accomplish tasks and compete successfully with standards of excellence

• Achievement Goal theory: focuses on the manner in which success is defined both by the individual and within the achievement situation itself

• Mastery Orientations: in which the focus is on personal improvement, giving maximum effort, and perfecting new skills

• Ego Orientation: in which the goal is to outperform others (hopefully, with as little effort as possible)

• Motivational Climate: that encourages or rewards either a mastery approach or an ego approach to defining success

• Mastery-Approach Goals: focus on the desire to master a task and learn new knowledge or skills

• Ego Approach Goals:  focus on the desire to master a task and learn new knowledge or skills

• Mastery-Avoidance Goals: reflect a fear of not performing up to one’s own standards

• Ego-Avoidance Goals: center on avoiding being outperformed by others

• 2 x 2 Achievement Goal Theory: each of us can be described in terms of an “achievement motivation profile.”

• Approach-Approach Conflict: occurs when we face two attractive alternatives, and selecting one means losing the other.

• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: occurs when we must choose between two undesirable alternatives.

• Approach-Avoidance Conflict: involves being attracted to and repelled by the same goal.

Emotion

• Emotions: are feeling (or affect) states that involve a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioral reactions to events.

• Eliciting Stimuli:  that trigger cognitive appraisals and emotional responses

• Cognitive Appraisals: are the interpretations and meanings that we attach to sensory stimuli.

• Expressive Behaviors: the person’s observable emotional displays

• Fundamental Emotional Patterns: Basic emotional response patterns that are believed to be innate.

• Instrumental Behaviors: In emotion, coping behaviors that are directed at achieving the goal or performing the task that is relevant to the emotion

• James-Lange Theory: our bodily reactions determine the subjective emotion we experience

• Cannon-Bard Theory:  proposed that the subjective experience of emotion and physiological arousal do not cause one another but instead are independent responses to an emotion-arousing situation.

• Facial Feedback hypothesis: feedback from the facial muscles to the brain plays a key role in determining the nature and intensity of emotions that we experience

• Two-Factor Theory of emotion: the intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we are feeling something, but situational cues give us the information we need to label the arousal and tell ourselves what we are feeling—fear, anger, love, or some other emotion