GLGY FINAL PART 1 (QUIZLET QUIZ)

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1. Define natural selection

all living organisms struggle and fight to survive, through this struggle some organisms are more likely to survive due to certain traits, and in turn, will create more offspring. This creation of offspring passes their traits on to the next generation for further survival

2. What is an example of natural selection as seen through beetles?

there are green and brown beetles, they live in a green meadow \> green beetles blend in more with the grass, brown beetles stand out to preditors \> green beetles have a higher survival likelihood, and reproduce in greater numbers \> more green beetles are now present in the meadow compared to brown beetles

3. Define evolution by natural selection

when the natural selection process is repeated over hundreds of generations, it produces a descendant that looks different from its original ancestors (e.g. black beetle)

4. The accumulation of multiple small changes over time can cause which three things?

1. Changes within an existing species
2. Form a new species
3. Cause a species to go extinct

5. Are biological species good for fossils or living species? What are they?

a group of individuals that potentially or actually interbreed in nature and produce fertile offspring. This is only useful for living beings, not fossil records

6. Are morphological species good for fossils or living species?

this is useful for fossil records, it is emphasized on data which is readily available to us

7. Who coined the idea of Classification?

Carolus Linnaeus

8. Define Linnaean Taxonomy

created by Linnaeus, it is a hierarchical system which ranks groups of organisms into successively smaller categories

9. In Linnaean Taxonomy, larger groups are identified by what?

broad, general features

10. In Linnaean Taxonomy, smaller groups are identified by what?

specific unique features

11. What does the Linnaean Taxonomy rank look like from biggest to small- est?

1. kingdom, 2. phylum, 3. class, 4. order, 5. family, 6. genus, 7. species (King Phillip Could’nt Order For Gina’s Son)

12. Did Linnaeus believe in evolution? How did he develop his classification system?

he had no concept of evolution, the system was developed based on how similar two organisms were to one another

13. Define homologous structures, what are some examples?

when a similar anatomical structure in two different organisms can be traced back to a single original structure in a common ancestor (e.g

14. Define analogous structures, what are some examples?

when two organ- isms have features that LOOK similar, but do not come from a common ancestor, they are only similar because they serve a similar function (e.g Butterfly wings and bat wings)

15. Analogous structures are examples of \________? Define it

convergent evolution. It is the independent evolution of similar structures in groups which are not closely related to each other

16. Define phylogenetic systematics

evolutionary trees, this is a method to classify animals into groups and to understand how these groups are related to one another

17. What do phyologenetic systematics allow for us to do?

they allow us to depict how organisms have gradually changed over time

18. How do we reconstruct phylogeny? What do we use?

we reconstruct it by observing how similar two organisms are through the use of characters, specifically homologous characters

19. Define diagnostic characters, give an example

these are distinctive and unique characters which define a taxon (e.g fur is diagnostic of mammals, but not dogs > not all dogs have fur)

20. Define cladograms, give an example

these are branching diagrams that show hierarchies of diagnostic characters; they depict a hypothesis of how two organisms are related to each other (e.g dogs and cats are linked by characters they share, including fur, a backbone,

carnivorous teeth)

21. Define what the node is

the point where the diagram of organisms splits

22. Does it matter in which order organisms are presented at a node?

no!

23. What does a short red bar on the cladogram represent?

it represents when a given character evolved in relation to a common ancestor and other organisms and it tells us which of the organisms inherited this character

24. If a character is present on a diagram, we represent it by...

adding a +

25. If a character is NOT present on a diagram, we represent it by...

adding a 0

26. The cladogram that is the MOST correct is...?

the one that does NOT change when new characters are added

27. Define the principle of parsimony

it states that the simplest explanation is probably the best explanation

28. Define primitive characters, what is another name for them?

characters which appear low on the cladogram and they are passed up the cladogram. Also known as plesiomorphic

29. Define derived characters, what is another name for them?

these are new or evolved characters, some animals may keep certain primitive characters. Also known as apomorphic

30. Having a vertebral column is what?

a primitive character of all vertebrates, we all inherited this from a common ancestor

31. Who are the Cephalochordata? What did they have and what didn't they have?

* they are early ancestors of the vertebraes
* did not have a vertebral column, instead had a flexible notochord
* evolution of notochord led to the evolution of the vertebrae

32. Who is the oldest common ancestor of all vertebraes? What are some of this characteristics and features?

* the oldest ancestor is Pikaia, a small (5cm) marine animal discovered 505 Ma
* it was a cephalochordate (had a head)

33. Do humans have a notochord?

we do, but it is highly modified

34. Who are the chordates?

they are early ancestors which had a notochord but NO head

35. Who were the vertebrata? What are some of its characteristics? What did it have? Who were the first?

* had a joined vertebral column


* the first to develop a vertebral column were jawless fish
* they had a head and column, no jaw!

36. Who were the gnathostomes? What are some of its characteristics?

* these are animals that have jaws! -
* these include sharks -
* they had skeletons made out of cartilage, jaws and a vertebral column

37. Jaws are believed to have evolved from what?

support structures such as gills

38. Who were the osteichthyes? What are some of their characteristics? What are the two major groups?

* these are fish with hard, calcified skeletons -
* the two major groups include ray finned fishes (regular fish) AND lobe finned fish (sarcopterygii) -
* ray finned fishes have jaws, vertebral columns and a mineralized skeleton

39. Who were the sarcopterygii? What are some of their characteristics?

* these are lobe finned fish which began to become fleshy and limb-like -
* they have a mineralized skeleton, jaws, vertebral column, and fleshy limb like fins

40. What could have motivated fish to move to land?

1. predators
2. competition
3. more food and resources

41. Who was the Tiktaalik? What did it have? What did it do? What group does it fall under?

* Tiktaalik is an extinct lobe finned fish that exhibited new vertebrae adaptations like weight bearing elbows, simple wrist bones, and simple fingers - I
* t falls under the fishapod group (fish with feet) -
* It had gills and lungs -
* Lived in shallow waters and didn't live on land (yet)

42. The Tiktaalik's lungs evolved from what?

a swim bladder which was previously used for bouyancy!

43. Who was among the first to live on land?

tetrapods such as Ichthyostega, but they were restricted to water for reproduction and egg laying

44. Why were some tetrapods unable to reproduce on land?

because their eggs required water, without it the eggs would dry out

45. The evolution of the membrane known as \________, enabled what?

the amnion allowed for eggs to become terrestrial as they were protected from drying out by the amnion

46. Who are the amniotes? What are the two major subgroups?

these are reptiles, birds, mammals and humans which can reproduce on land. The two groups include synapsids and diapsids

47. What is the key characteristic of synapsids?

the development of a single pair of openings behind the eyes

48. What is the key characteristic of diapsids? What is it called?

the development of two pairs of openings behind the eyes (temporal fenestrae)

49. A clade is a \______ group, meaning it is...

monophyletic, it is a group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and ALL its descendants (e.g. humans, hares, birds, and crocodiles)

50. Are diapsids dinosaurs? Why or why not? What are some examples of diapsids

they are because of the number of openings on their skulls (e.g birds, snakes, lizards)

51. What are the two clades of diapsids?

1. lepidosauromorphs 2. archosauromorphs

52. What is a key characteristic of lepidosauromorphs? Name some examples of this group

* short, non overlapping vertebraes on the neck -
* includes snakes and lizards

53. What is a key characteristic of the archosauromorphs? Name some examples of this group

* longer vertebrae in the neck which overlaps to provide support for longer necks -
* includes crocodiles, birds, and pterosaurus

54. Who are the archosauria? What is a key characteristic of this group?

* they are a subset of the archosauromorphs -
* they have additional openings in front of the eyes (antiorbital fenestra)

55. Who are the crurortarsi clade? What is their key characteristic?

* includes crocodiles -
* have a sprawling stance

56. Who are the ornithodira clade? What is their key characteristic?

* includes pterosaurus, birds and dinosaurs -
* have an upright stance

57. Name the 3 key characteristics of the archosauria

1. antiorbital fenestra
2. simple ankle joint
3. specializations for flight including the elongation of the digit IV

58. The ornithodira is a clade that includes \______ and \______? What are some key characteristics of this group?

* pterosauria and dinosauria -
* have an upright posture, hind limbs positioned directly underneath the body -
* motion is limited to front to back

59. Flight is an example of \_____

convergent evolution

60. Dinosauromorphs exhibit \_____? Define it

digitigrade posture; standing on the balls of the feet allowing for a longer stride

61. The earliest, most primitive non-dinosaur dinosauromorphs had which characteristics?

* they were small, less than 1m including the tail
* lightly built - insectivorous or carnivorous
* walked on all fours but ran bipedally

62. The dinosaurs are a subset of the _______? What modifications occured in them?

dinosauromorphia

* had an elongated crest on the humerus (powerful forearms)
* had a perforate acetabulum, a cup shaped opening on both sides of the hips where the head of the femur inserts

63. The oldest known dinosaur fossils come from \______

South America, it is believed this is where dinosaurs first appeared

64. What is an explanation as to why dinosaurs are so diverse, if they all originated from the same geographical area?

* they became more seperated by rivers and mountains as the continents moved
* as they became seperated for a long period of time, dinosaurs were no longer able to share the same genetic material
* different selective pressures resulted from a variation in ecological conditions which caused them to become so different (i.e there are different living conditions for dinosaurs that live closer to the mountains and those living closer to water > they will look different to adapt to the environment)

65. Define morphospecies

these are a group of individuals that have some reliable characters distinguishing them from all other species

66. What is the main problem we face with morphospecies?

we cannot tell if the observed variation is due to individual variation, sexual dimorphism, changes with change, etc

67. How do we identify gender in fossil records?

* look for egg in the body cavity
* look for the medullary bone
* size differences in bones
* differences in ornamentation

68. How do we identify age in fossil records?

* look for lines of arrested growth; they are found in bones and teeth and are kind of like tree rings
* fusion in skull bones (lack of it indicates a young specimen)
* solid or spongy bones (spongy bones = young)

69. Who was the Nanotyrannus? What were some of its key characteristics?

it was believed to either be a young T.Rex, a dwarf dinosaur or just another species entirely! We dont know

* small in size
* spongy bones
* fused skull, typically seen in adults -
* had 17 teeth (t.rex typically only have 11-14)

70. What are the 3 major groups of dinosaurs? What does each group include?

1. Theropods - meat eating dinos like T rex
2. Sauropodomorph - long necked dinos
3. Ornithischians - everything else

71. Since 1887, dinosaurs were lumped into 2 clades, which include ....? They were based on what?

1. saurischian 2. ornithischian. Based on arrangement of bones in the hips

72. Harry Seeley recognized that all dinos have which three bones in the pelvic girdle?

1. illium 2. ischium 3. pubis

73. The pubis can be oriented in one of two ways...

1. down and slightly forward as in lizard-hipped, saurischian dinos 2. part of the pubis points backwars as in bird-hipped, ornitshichian dinos

74. \______ and \_____ were considered saurischians

theropods, sauropodomorphs

75. Birds are \______ dinosaurs as they evolved from \______

saurischian, theropods

76. Some key characteristics of the ornithischia include... (hint 7)

1. predentary bone 2. toothless and roughened up tip of snout 3. a narrow bone (palpebral) that crosses the outside of the eye socket 4. jaw joint set below upper tooth row 5. cheek teeth with low, sub triangular crowns 6. 5 sacral vertebrae (minimum) 7. turned to bone (ossified) tendons above the sacral region

77. Some key characteristics of the saurischia include... (hint 4)

1\. elongate vertebrae in the neck 2. distinctly large hand 3. loss of finger digit V 4. thumb (digit I) falls across the palm

78. Ornithischia are a \_______ group, saurischia are \_______

well defined, not

79. Who was the Tianyulong? When was it discovered? What did it have?

it was a basal ornitschian dinosaur discovered in 2009. It had feathers running down its body and tail!

80. Feathers either evolved \______ OR \_______

twice or are a primitive feature of all dinosaurs

81. Baron et. al (2017) did what?

conducted the "Big Reorganization", reanalyzed the morphologic characters and proposed a new cladogram for dinosaurs (grouped theropods and ornithischians into "ornithoscelida")

82. Some problems with the Baron et. al reinterpretation include...

1. both sauropodomorphs and theropods have pneumatic bones (bones with air sacs) throughout their skeletons, but ornithischians do not 2. carnivory evolved twice (once in theropods and once in herrarasaurids)

83. How do snakes eat their food?

the teeth of the snake hook backwards and are mostly used for holding down the prey \> they swallow their prey whole

84. How do reptiles eat their food?

they use a wide gape to seize, kill and dismember their prey, and use their spaced out, sharp pointy teeth to rip the flesh into smaller pieces

85. How is a wide gape achieved? What does it NOT allow for the owner to do?

* it is achieved by the jaw joint being at the same level as the tooth row
* it does not allow for the owner to move its jaw side to side

86. The herbivorous skull is divided up into 3 parts, which include...? Explain each part

1. the cropping section; blade like teeth called incisors bite off chunks of food)
2. the diastema; a toothless gap for food manipulation by the tongue)
3. the cheek teeth; called molars in mammals, a place for grinding down food into a paste)

87. Some adaptations in mammals for chewing include... (hint; 5)

1. an expansion of bone called the coronoid process for jaw muscle attachment
2. closely packed teeth with flat grinding surfaces
3. teeth occlude (fit together tightly top to bottom) for efficient grinding
4. an inset tooth row to support cheeks
5. jaw joint is above the tooth row, allowing all the upper and lower teeth to make contact at the same time (like water pump pliers)

88. The skull morphology of a non-chewer includes.... (hint; 5)

1\. gape: wide gape 2. tooth spacing: spaced out teeth 3. nature of contact between upper and lower teeth: teeth with limited grinding surfaces (pointy, narrow, peg like or other) 4. position of jaw joint: jaw joint in the plane of the tooth row 5. carnivore or herbivore: usually carnivores

89. The skull morphology of a chewer includes... (hint; 5)

1\. gape: small gape 2. tooth spacing: closely packed teeth 3. nature of contact between paper and lower teeth: cheek teeth with large grinding surfaces. Teeth occlude (contact top and bottom) 4. position of jaw joint: jaw joint below or above the plane of the tooth row, large coronoid process 5. carnivore or herbivore: herbivores and omnivores

90. What are some characteristics of carnivores?

* they have short digestive tracts -
* slim torso -
* simple, single chambered stomachs -
* do not chew food

91. What are some characteristics of herbivores?

* they chew their food
* use a digestive enzyme in their saliva to break down the carbohydrates in the food
* have large barrel shaped guts to accommodate the long digestive tracts

92. The less \_____ a herbivore does...

chewing, the more they rely on internal digestion

93. What are gastroliths?

they are small stomach stones which typically carnivores or animals that do not chew ingest to help with food breakdown

94. Theropods were bad chewers because of which 6 characteristics?

1. they had no teeth or the teeth were very spaced out 2. tooth row was NOT inset 3. had a wide gape 4. slim torsos 5. pointy, serrated teeth 6.dominant tooth function; tearing

95. Sauropodomorphs were bad chewers because of which 6 characteristics?

1. had gastroliths (for non chewers) 2. teeth were spaced out 3. tooth row NOT inset 4. had leaf, spatula and peg-shaped teeth with few grinding surfaces 5. dominant tooth function; puncturing vegetation 6. barrel shaped guts for fermentation

96. The skull of ornithischians is divided into 3 main parts which include...? Explain each part

1. the cropping section

97. Explain the rhampotheca

it is the ornithischia beak, made of keratin. In this beak, the jaw joint is located below the tooth row and the jaw works like a water pump plier which allows for all the upper and lower teeth to make contact at the same time

98. Were the ornithischia good chewers?

somewhat yes!

99. How do we get DIRECT evidence for what dinosaurs ate?

1. through coprolites (poop fossils) - we can see food particles in the poop 2. through cololites (gut contents)

100. How do we get INDIRECT evidence for what dinosaurs ate?

1. we can assemble all of the known fossils from an area, the carnivores likely ate the herbivores they likely ate the plants 2. look for teeth marks on bones 3. do more comparative anatomy