Lab Test #2 Physiology

Exercise 4 - The Cardiovascular System ~ Blood; Exercise 5 - The Digestive System; Exercise 6: The Respiratory System

What are the functions of the blood?

-Transport= transports nutrients and oxygen and removes waste products (carbon dioxide and urea)

-Protection= white blood cells and antibodies help

destroy and eradicate infectious microbes from the

body; platelets help in the production of blood

clots to prevent the loss of blood through broken

vessels

-Regulation= distributing heat as needed around

the body

What is the normal blood pH range?

7.35—7.45.

Whole blood makes up how much of body weight?

8%

Whole blood can be separated into what 2 major components?

Plasma and formed elements

Plasma makes up how much of the total blood

volume?

55%

Formed elements makes up how much of the

total blood volume?

45%

Plasma

the straw colored liquid in the upper part of the tube

The Buffy Coat

small clear section which contains the white blood cells and platelets

The Packed Cell Volume (PCV) or Hematocrit

red portion at the bottom of the tube which contains only red blood cells

Plasma is composed mostly of ______ with

dissolved solutes including ________ and other

_______ like ______

-water (91%)

-proteins (7%)

-solutes (2%)= ions, hormones, nutrients, waste prod-

ucts, and gases)

The Formed Elements include

-Erythrocytes– Red Blood Cells (RBC)

-Leukocytes– White Blood Cells (WBC)

-Platelets

____________ are biconcave disc shaped cells containing the protein hemoglobin involved in the transport of respiratory gases (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide)

Mature RBC’s

Mature RBC’s are biconcave disc shaped cells containing the protein _________ involved in the transport of ________________.

hemoglobin; respiratory gases (Oxygen and Carbon dioxide)

Do RBC’s contain a nucleus or any other cellular organelle

No

RBC’s live for an average of ________ before they are removed from circulation by phagocytic cells in the spleen, liver, and red bone marrow

120 days

The body normally makes as many RBC’s as are removed from circulation each minute (____________) so as to ____________

1-2 million RBC’s per minute; maintain a constant hematocrit

Lower than normal Hematocrit which decreases oxygen delivery to tissues

anemia

What various conditions cause anemia?

nutritional deficits of iron which decreases

hemoglobin production, sickle cell anemia

a disease caused by the faulty production of hemoglobin and

hemolytic disease

sickle cell anemia

hemolytic disease

diseases that destroy RBC’s and decrease their numbers.

Higher than normal Hematocrit which increases the viscosity and resistance to blood flow

Polycythemia

What causes polycythemia?

Severe dehydration, increased production or abuse of erythropoietin (EPO)- the hormone that stimulates RBC production, and the introduction of more blood into the body than normal as in blood doping

hormone secreted by the kidney to stimulate the production of red blood cells in red bone marrow

Erythropoietin

___________ are produced from the development and differentiation of pluripotent stem cells in red bone marrow

The formed elements, including WBC’s

Do WBC’s contain a nucleus?

Yes

With the exception of the Lymphocytes, ______ do not divide once they enter blood circulation from red bone marrow.

WBC’s

The 5 classes of leukocytes are subdivided into 2 major subdivisions based on the presence or absence of cytoplasmic granules:

-Granulocytic Cells (Granulocytes)

-Agranulocytic Cells (Agranulocytes)

Granulocytic Cells (Granulocytes)

Neutrophils, Basophils, and Eosinophils

Agranulocytic Cells (Agranulocytes)

Monocytes and Lymphocytes

What is A? What is the average in males and females?

Normal Hematocrit

Males= average 45%

Females=average of 42%

What is B?

Anemia (Lower than normal hematocrit)

What is C?

Polycythemia (Higher than normal hematocrit)

The granular leukocytes are so named due to the presence of ___________ located in their _____

large numbers of membrane bound vesicles (Granules); cytoplasm

What happens to granulocytes when they are activated?

They perform a mass exocytosis of their granules (called degranulation)

The increase in WBC count is referred to as ________

Leukocytosis

Leukocytes

white blood cells

Erythrocytes

red blood cells

Thrombocytes

platelets

Granulocyte with 3 - 5 lobed nucleus that eradicates microbes via phagocytosis and through the production of strong oxidants like hydrogen peroxide

Neutrophils

Neutrophils are very aggressive bactericidal cells killing bacteria through _______ and the release of ________

phagocytosis; chemicals that produce strong oxidants

Neutrophils increase in numbers during

bacterial infections.

Granulocyte with a bi-lobed nucleus with red orange staining granules

Eosinophils

Eosinophils release __________ all effective in the destruction of ___________

-strong oxidants, toxic proteins and a neurotoxin

-parasitic worms and the eradication of allergens

Which WBC release Histaminase to diminish inflammatory responses?

eosinophils

Eosinophils increase in numbers at sites of _________.

parasitic worm infections, allergy attacks, and inflammation.

Granulocyte with deep staining blue or purple granules that release inflammatory compounds like histamine

Basophils

Basophils normally increase in numbers with _________

tissue trauma, chickenpox, sinusitis, diabetes mellitus, myxedema, and polycythemia

Agranulocytic Leukocyte including T-Cells and B-Cells involved in Specific Immune Responses. The smallest of the leukocytes found in the blood.

Lymphocytes

T-Cells

attack infected cells and cancerous cells directly

B-cells

produce antibodies against specific antigen when activated

Activated B-cells are called what?

Plasma cells

the largest of the leukocytes containing a horseshoe shaped nucleus with an abundance of light blue cytoplasm

Monocytes

These cells are highly phagocytic capable of engulfing large numbers of bacteria, dead or damaged cells, and virally infected cell

Monocytes

are called macrophages once they emigrate into tissues

Monocytes

Where are the A and B antigens found?

Plasma membrane of Erythrocytes

Which blood type contains A antigens and anti-b antibodies?

Type A Blood

Which type of blood contains B antigens and anti-a antibodies?

Type B Blood

Which type of blood contains A & B antigens and neither anti-a nor anti-b antibodies?

AB

Which type of blood does not contain the A nor the B antigen but has both anti-a and anti-b antibodies?

Type O Blood

Which blood type is considered to be the Universal Recipient?

Type AB+ Blood

Which blood type is considered to be the Universal Donor?

Type O- Blood

Which blood types can a person with type A+ blood receive?

A+, A-, O+, O-

Which blood types can a person with type A- blood receive?

A- and O-

Which blood types can a person with type B+ blood receive?

B+, B-, O+, O-

Which blood types can a person with type B- blood receive?

B- and O-

What are all of the blood types that a person with type AB+ blood can receive?

A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+ and O-

Which blood types can a person with type AB- blood receive?

A-, B-, AB-, and O-

Which blood types can a person with type O+ blood receive?

O+ and O-

Which blood types can a person with type O- blood receive?

O-

Agglutination

the clumping of RBC’s together as antibodies cross link with their antigen

When is the agglutination reaction used?

To determine the blood type of someone whose blood type is not known

If the person’s blood sample demonstrates a positive agglutination reaction for a particular antigen then what does that mean?

that antigen is present on the surface of their red blood cells.

If a person has a positive agglutination reaction for anti-A, anti-B, and anti-Rh sera then that person’s blood type is _____.

AB+

A blood sample does not clump together during a _______ agglutination. In this case, we can determine that a particular antigen is absent from the surface of a person’s RBC if the agglutination reaction for the antigen is negative.

negative

If we treat an unknown blood sample with anti-A, anti-B, and anti-Rh sera and we observe a negative agglutination reaction for all 3 then we can determine that Antigen-A, Antigen-B, and Antigen-Rh are absent from the surface of the RBC and the person’s blood type is ____.

O-

__________ potentially occurs when an Rh negative female becomes pregnant with an Rh positive baby

Hemolytic disease of a newborn (HDN)

The process of breaking down food is accomplished by two digestive mechanisms:

mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

the physical degradation of larger food materials into smaller pieces

Mechanical Digestion

the breakdown of the larger food materials at the chemical level, separating individual organic monomers from their larger polymers

Chemical digestion

Incisors are able to slice, canines can puncture, and premolars and molars are used to grind food in a process

Mastication

What are the general functions of saliva?

-moistening food to make it easier to swallow

-dissolving food for tasting

-buffering acidic foods with the help of bicarbonate ions

-protecting the mouth from infection with its rinsing action

Major components of saliva include:

• Immunoglobulin A – important in preventing attachment of microbes, preventing penetration into the epithelium

• Bacteriolytic lysozyme – kills bacteria

• Salivary amylase – Carbohydrase

• Lingual lipase – Lipase

• Bicarbonate – buffers acidic foods

As food is masticated and mixed with saliva, it is turned into a semi-solid mass referred to as a _____. When it is time to swallow, the bolus is transferred to the ______ where the process of _______ (swallowing) is initiated

bolus; oropharynx; deglutination

Components of gastric juices include:

• Water

• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – denatures proteins, making it easier for protease enzymes to target peptide bonds. Also has an antimicrobial function.

• Pepsinogen – activated into pepsin (Protease) by HCl within the stomach lumen.

• Gastric lipase – Lipase

• Intrinsic factor – aids in vitamin B12 absorption within the ileum

____ and ______ are accessory digestive organs that secrete digestive aids into the duodenum. Bile, which is produced by the liver, then concentrated, stored and released by the gall bladder, aids lipid digestion by serving as an emulsifier. Bile also aids in lipid absorption by making fatty acid chains more water soluble. In addition, bile also contains bicarbonate to aid in the neutralization of the acidic chyme coming from the stomach

The liver and pancreas

Components of the liver

Bile – lipid emulsifier consisting of water, bile salts, cholesterol, bicarbonate, bilirubin, and ions

Components of the pancreatic juices

• Bicarbonate – neutralizes acidic chyme from the stomach

• Trypsinogen – activated into trypsin (Protease) by enterokinase within the duodenum.

• Chymotrypsinogen – activated into chymotrypsin (Protease) by trypsin.

• Procarboxypeptidase – activated into carboxypeptidase (Protease) by trypsin.

• Proelastase – activated into elastase (Protease) by trypsin.

• Pancreatic amylase – Carbohydrase

• Pancreatic lipase – Lipase

• Ribonuclease – Nuclease

• Deoxyribonuclease – Nuclease

The small intestine is divided into three regions. The duodenum receives chyme from the stomach thorough the pyloric sphincter. Secretions from the liver and pancreas enter the duodenum through ducts piercing the mucosa. Following the duodenum are the jejunum and ileum. Mechanical and chemical digestion occur throughout the small intestines. In addition, the majority of absorption occurs within the ileum. Mechanical digestion within the small intestine occurs through peristalsis. This serves to mix chyme with secretions from the liver, pancreas and small intestines. It also propels chyme through the small intestine. Chemical digestion occurs both within the lumen of the small intestine through bile and pancreatic enzymes as well as along the mucosal border in a region referred to as the brush border.

Enzymes found within the brush border include:

Alpha dextrinase – Carbohydrase

Maltase – Carbohydrase

Sucrase – Carbohydrase

Lactase – Carbohydrase

Aminopeptidase – Protease

Dipeptidase – Protease

Nucleosidases – Nuclease

Phosphatases – Nuclease

Cholecystokinin (CCK) from the intestinal wall is stimulated by the presence of

protein and fat in the small intestine

stomach cell that secretes pepsinogen is the

chief cell

enzyme called salivary amylase functions to begin digestion

carbohydrates

Parts of the G.I. tube in the CORRECT order of food movement:

oropharynx, laryngopharynx, esophagus, stomach, pyloric sphincter

A structure that produces no digestive secretions of any kind is the

gallbladder

The large intestine consists of several regions ending in the

rectum and anus

Chemical digestion in the large intestine is associated with several bacterial enzymes that are responsible for producing vitamins _ and _. No human produced enzymes are found in the large intestine.

B and K

Feces are eventually eliminated when the defecation reflex is initiated when fecal matter enters into the rectum.

Regulation of digestion is accomplished by interactions of the

diencephalon, cerebrum, enteric nervous system, autonomic nervous system and endocrine system

The enteric nervous system independently regulates digestion through the activity of two plexuses:

the submucosal plexus and the myenteric plexus

The parasympathetic nervous system will further ______ the enteric nervous system as well as promote salivation, secretion of gastric fluids, and defecation

stimulate