Elements present- C, H and O. Preset in a %%C1H2O1%% ratio.
Function- %%Energy and structure.%%
Eg. Glucose, Ribosome, Fructose, Galactose.
Monosaccharides are %%distinguished by the carbonyl group(aldehyde or ketone) and the number of atoms%% in the carbon backbone.
Carbohydrate configurations can be drawn in 2 ways. Chain form and ring form. %%The chain form shows functional units better but the ring form is more accurate to shape.%% The ring is the only shape normally found in biology.
Eg. A glucose molecule.
%%A 6 sided ring is called a pyranose ring.%% And the OH group on C#1 can be found above or below the midline of the ring. %%If it is below it is an alpha glucose and if it is above it is called a beta glucose. 50% become alpha and 50% become beta.%%
Chain form of glucose.
Ring form of glucose.
%%Fructose, galactose ad mannose are all examples of isomers to glucose.%%
Note: an isomer is a molecule that shares the same chemical elements but different structure.
Eg. Ribose and Fructose.
Ribose.
Fructose
Disaccharides are more complex sugars. Simple sugars %%joined together with condensation and ether links%%
Eg. Maltose= glucose+glucose
Linkages are either %%1,4 glycosidic or 1,6.%%
%%The carbon 1 of on molecule is connected to the carbon 4 of the other.%%
A polysaccharide is when %%many simple sugars join together using 1,4 or 1,6 ether links.%%
Note: Oligosaccharides: smaller polysaccharides (3-10 monosaccharides)
Eg1. Starch
Starch is a %%storage molecules in plants%%. %%It stores glucose%%. It is made up of 2 smaller polysaccharides.
It is %%25% amylose%%- a glucose linked using 1,4 linkages to get a coiled chain. And %%75% amylopectin%%- glucose linked using 1,4 and 1,6 linkages that form tangled short branches.
The more branches the starches are, the harder they are to digest.
Eg2. Cellulose.
%%Main component of plant cell walls%%. Made by joining %%3000+ glucoses w Beta 1,4 links%%.
We have no enzymes that can digest this linkage. And the %%straight unbranched shape allows hydroxyl groups of parallel molecules to form hydrogen bonds and produce tight bundles or fibres.%%
Eg3. Glycogen (animal starch)
This form of %%glucose is store in live/muscle.%% It is shaped like %%amylopectin but even more 1,6 links%% so more branched.
Eg4. Chitin
A %%special polysaccharide%% found on the coverings of insects and crustaceans. It is %%not a true polysaccharide due to the nitrogen.%%
Eg5. Blood groups (A,B,AB,O)
Different blood types cause by the 2 different polysaccharides attached to the membrane of a RBC(red blood cell).
Elements present- C,H,O and P(sometimes).
Functions- energy, structure(cell membranes), regulatory jobs(hormones,steroids,insulation, shock absorber)
%%Most common energy storage.%% They are energy storage efficient because they %%are compact and lightweight. Made of a long chain of fatty acids joined to a glycerol with an ester bonds.%%
Glycerol is the hydroxyl and fatty acids are carboxyl. Usually contain %%even amounts of carbons%%(14,16,18) and %%may be saturated or unsaturated.%% A %%saturated fat has only single bonds. A unsaturated fat has double/triple bonds that cause kinks.%%
Different lipids are caused by…
I) types of fatty acids joined to glycerol
II)amount of fatty acids
Results in…
I) Fats contain long fatty acids and are saturated.
II) Oils contain short fatty acids and are unsaturated.
%%Lipids by themselves are non-polar and do not like water. BUT phospholipids have one polar end that attracts water and another end that is still non-polar.%% They are made up of glycerol, fatty acids and 1 phosphate containing a functional group.
Compact hydrophobic molecules, %%4 fused hydrocarbon rings and several different functional groups%%.
Eg1. Sex hormones- estradiol in female, testosterone in male, they only have a couple small differences.
Eg2. Cholesterol- important in membranes and structure. Cells convert it into vitamin D and bile salts.
Waxes are %%long chains of fatty acids linked to alcohol or carbon rings. Ester links%%.
Eg. Honey comb, earwax, beeswax
Triglyceride (Macromolecules)
%%Main molecules for energy storage. 1 glycerol + 3F.A.%% It is an %%overall non-polar molecules.%% The oxygens do create a small polar section but it does not affect the non-polarness of the molecule.
The first 2 fatty acid chains are saturated due to all the carbons being bonded by single bonds. But the bottom chain has a double bond and a kink which makes it unsaturated.
Functions:
Structure:
Protein macromolecules- %%amino acids linked together via peptide links.%%
Depends on:
Protein function is dependant on shape!!!
Protein Structures:
All proteins have the first 3.
%%Number, type and sequence%% of amino acids linked together in a %%chain%%.
All other structures depend on primary.
Formed when %%hydrogen bonds are created between amino acids along the chain.%%
2 structures can be formed:
When the %%electronegative oxygen of 1 peptide link is attracted to an électropositive H of another peptide link.%%
When %%2 peptide chains that lie parallel to each other have H-bonds form between them due to the oxygen of one peptide link attracting to the H of the adjacent peptide link.%%
Makes the %%overall structure%% of protein. %%Folding created due to R-group interactions.%% Polar R-groups will fold to the outside (hydrophilic) while non-polar R-groups will fold inwards (hydrophobic).
3D shape is stabilized by R-group interactions
Not all proteins contain this!
%%Multiple subunits formed together to create a functional protein.%%
Subunit→ polypeptide chain folded into tertiary structure
Eg. Hemoglobin has 4 units (2 alpha, 2 beta)
Functions: cell coordinations- instructions for cell functions
Structure: Nucleotides
Eg. Deoxyribose or Ribose
Inorganic Phosphate (H3PO4)
Nitrogenous Base- nitrogen containing a ring (2 types)
Eg. Thymine, Cytosine
Eg. Adenine, Guanine
Multiple Nucleotides combine to create DNA and RNA (cell information)
Energy Relationship- ATP
Nucleotides provide immediate energy sources for most activities in living cells.
O- is unstable, energetic and holds potential energy.
P Anhydride Linkage