Understanding Leadership and Group Dynamics

What is leadership?

Leadership is guiding others toward individual and group goals through directing, coordinating, motivating, supporting, and unifying efforts.

How long has leadership existed?

Leadership has existed for over 5,000 years, as evidenced by ancient records such as Egyptian hieroglyphics.

What are some key questions people have about leadership?

People often ask: What do leaders do? Who should lead? Why are some leaders more effective?

What is the significance of Charlotte Beers in leadership?

Charlotte Beers was the first woman and outsider to lead Ogilvy, known for her turnaround expertise and optimistic leadership style.

What approach did Charlotte Beers use to lead Ogilvy?

Beers used a collaborative and inspiring approach, focusing on structure, strategy, systems, and staff to revive the company.

What did James McGregor Burns state about leadership?

Burns stated that leadership is widely observed but poorly understood, often occurring in group settings.

What are the characteristics of leadership as defined in the notes?

Leadership is an influence process where group members guide one another toward individual and collective goals, characterized as cooperative, reciprocal, and goal-oriented.

What is the difference between leadership and management?

Leadership differs from management/supervision in that it focuses on impact rather than titles, and individuals without formal roles can still be influential leaders.

What factors make people willing to follow a leader?

People willingly follow when success feels achievable, rewards are valued, the task is group-based, and an experienced leader is present.

How does leadership influence group dynamics in stressful situations?

In stressful or crisis situations, people become more receptive to leadership, often preferring guidance over leaderless scenarios.

What are the two key clusters of leadership behaviors identified by Ohio State University researchers?

The two clusters are Task Leadership, which focuses on goal completion and task structuring, and Relationship Leadership, which emphasizes maintaining group harmony and member satisfaction.

What does Task Leadership involve?

Task Leadership involves setting standards, assigning roles, planning activities, proposing solutions, and monitoring efficiency.

What does Relationship Leadership focus on?

Relationship Leadership focuses on boosting morale, supporting members, resolving conflicts, and building rapport.

What is the two-factor model of leadership?

The two-factor model of leadership distinguishes between task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors.

How do leaders enhance group performance?

Effective leaders enhance performance by mobilizing group members to reach shared and individual goals and balancing group discussions.

What impact do leaders have in emergencies?

In emergencies, groups with a leader are more likely to help, with success rates of 80% compared to 35% without a leader.

What is a potential downside of leadership?

Not all leaders are beneficial; some may misuse power for personal gain.

What is the role of influence in leadership?

Leadership is an influence process that helps individuals agree on goals and influences thoughts, behaviors, and feelings.

What types of influence can leadership involve?

Influence can be direct, such as orders and instructions, or subtle, such as persuasion and role modeling.

What is the importance of cooperation in leadership?

Leadership relies on cooperation rather than coercion, with followers more likely to support leaders they perceive as effective.

What is the relationship between leadership and group dynamics?

Leadership is a key part of group dynamics, influencing how members interact and work toward common goals.

How did Charlotte Beers exemplify group-centered leadership?

Beers exemplified group-centered leadership by directly involving staff in changes at Ogilvy.

What is the significance of the two-factor model of leadership?

The two-factor model helps understand the balance between task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership behaviors.

What does Leadership Substitutes Theory propose?

It suggests that certain member traits (e.g., experience, professionalism) and specific tasks or environments can reduce the need for task and relationship leadership.

What are neutralizers in leadership?

Neutralizers prevent effective leadership, such as when tasks are boring or overly simple, which reduces the leader's impact.

What are the two aspects of leadership identified in sex differences?

Task (agentic) and relationship (communal) aspects.

How do men and women generally differ in leadership styles?

Men are typically more task-oriented, independent, and goal-driven, while women are more communal, supportive, and emotionally aware.

What is the Great Leader Theory?

Proposed by Thomas Carlyle, it posits that leaders are born with traits that make them great, and history is shaped by 'great men'.

What does the Zeitgeist Theory suggest about leadership?

Proposed by Leo Tolstoy, it suggests that leadership is influenced by the 'spirit of the times' or situation, making personal traits less relevant.

What is the Interactional Approach to leadership?

Proposed by Kurt Lewin, it combines personal traits and situational factors, summarized by the formula: Behavior = f(Person, Environment).

What initial rejection did the trait approach to leadership face?

Early research found inconsistent results linking personality traits to leadership, leading to the assumption that leaders were natural-born.

What modern support exists for the trait approach in leadership?

With precise measures, traits like assertiveness, dominance, narcissism, and social motivation can predict leadership emergence.

What types of settings lead to different traits emerging as leaders?

In task-focused settings, conscientious and achievement-oriented individuals emerge, while in interpersonal tasks, extraverted individuals take the lead.

What are longitudinal studies in leadership research?

Studies that predict leadership years later based on early personality traits.

What is the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality related to leadership?

It includes Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Openness, Emotional Stability, and Agreeableness.

Which traits are the best predictors of leadership emergence according to meta-analysis findings?

Extraversion and Conscientiousness are the best predictors, while Agreeableness is the weakest predictor of emergence but important for effectiveness.

What is the Dark Triad in leadership?

It refers to three personality traits: Machiavellianism (manipulative, strategic), Narcissism (inflated self-image), and Psychopathy (lack of empathy).

How do Machiavellians relate to leadership?

Machiavellians are social chameleons who manipulate situations to gain leadership.

What characteristics define narcissists in leadership contexts?

Narcissists are often charismatic and confident, making them frequently chosen as leaders.

What is the significance of the genetic marker rs4950 in leadership?

It is linked to traits such as temperament, intelligence, and extraversion, which are heritable and associated with leadership.

What role does emotional stability play in the Five-Factor Model?

Emotional stability (versus anxiety) is one of the five key traits that can influence leadership effectiveness.

What is the relationship between agreeableness and leadership effectiveness?

While agreeableness is the weakest predictor of leadership emergence, it is still important for effectiveness as a leader.

What is the implication of the statement 'these are tendencies, not rules' in the context of gender differences in leadership?

It indicates that while there may be observable trends in leadership styles based on gender, they do not apply universally to all individuals.

What did Beers exemplify in the context of gender and leadership styles?

Beers exemplified a task-oriented leadership style despite prevailing gender stereotypes.

What is the impact of cohesive teams on leadership needs according to Leadership Substitutes Theory?

Highly cohesive teams may not require strong leadership intervention due to their self-sufficiency.

What are the implications of the interaction of traits and situations in leadership emergence?

The interaction suggests that different environments can highlight different traits, influencing who emerges as a leader.

What percentage of executives may score high in psychopathy?

Approximately 3.5%.

Why are psychopaths rarely leaders?

Due to a lack of empathy and self-control, although they may thrive in some high-power settings.

What is General Mental Ability (GMA) in relation to leaders?

Leaders usually possess higher GMA, which includes abstract thinking, problem-solving, foresight, good judgment, decisiveness, and strong communication.

What can happen if a leader's intelligence is too high compared to their group?

It can lead to communication and trust issues.

What is the ideal intelligence level for leaders compared to their group?

Leaders should be slightly more intelligent than their group, not vastly superior.

Define Emotional Intelligence (EI).

EI is the ability to understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.

What are key abilities associated with Emotional Intelligence?

Reading others' moods, managing personal emotions, and influencing others through emotional expression.

What outcomes are associated with high Emotional Intelligence in leaders?

Leader emergence, better cooperation, empathy, perspective-taking, and interpersonal relations.

How do emotionally intelligent leaders navigate group dynamics?

They navigate group dynamics and politics effectively.

What is practical intelligence?

Practical intelligence involves problem-solving and convincing others to follow solutions.

What is creative intelligence?

Creative intelligence is the ability to envision future goals and gain group buy-in.

What is the Babble Effect?

The tendency for group members who talk at a high rate to emerge as leaders, even if their input is of low quality.

What factors influence leadership selection?

Biases and subjective factors such as appearance, age, race, and sex.

What correlation exists between height and leadership perception?

A correlation of 0.30; taller individuals are more likely to be seen as leaders.

How does fitness relate to leadership perception?

Fit individuals are perceived as more capable leaders.

What age group is overrepresented among top Fortune 700 executives?

81% of them are 50 years or older.

What impact does participation have on leadership potential?

Active participation strongly predicts leadership; low talk correlates with low leadership potential.

What does research by Jones & Kelly (2007) suggest about communication in leadership?

High-quality and high-quantity communication leads to strong leadership perception, while low-quality communication results in weak leadership perception.

How does diversity affect leadership opportunities?

Leadership is influenced by race, ethnicity, and cultural norms, with minorities often underrepresented despite qualifications.

What barriers do women face in leadership?

Systemic barriers such as the 'glass ceiling' and 'leadership labyrinth'.

How do men and women differ in leadership behavior in mixed groups?

Men enact leadership behavior 5 times more than women.

What type of feedback do women face when asserting authority?

Women receive more negative nonverbal feedback compared to men.

What is the skew in leadership emergence between dominant men and women in mixed-sex pairs?

Dominant men become leaders 90% of the time, while dominant women only become leaders 35% of the time.

What irony exists regarding women's leadership traits compared to their leadership emergence?

Women often score higher on traits linked to effective leadership, such as communication and empathy, but are less likely to be chosen as leaders.

What is the Implicit Leadership Theory (ILT)?

Developed by Robert Lord and colleagues, ILT suggests that people have cognitive structures (leader prototypes) that influence their perception of who qualifies as a leader.

What factors shape Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs)?

ILTs are shaped by experiences, culture, and assumptions, and are often unconscious.

What are some characteristics included in Leader Prototypes according to ILTs?

Characteristics include being intelligent, inspirational, visionary, relational, dedicated, team-oriented, diplomatic, and having integrity.

What does the Prototype-Matching Hypothesis state?

It states that people evaluate leaders based on how well they match their internal prototype of a leader.

What were the findings of the study by Lord et al. (1984) regarding leader effectiveness?

Prototypical leaders congruent with ILTs were judged most effective, while incongruent leaders were judged least effective.

What are some biases and errors associated with ILTs?

ILTs can lead to favoring leaders who match superficial traits, misattributing leadership traits based on appearance, and unfairly blaming leaders who do not match expected traits.

What is the GLOBE Project and its purpose?

Conducted by Robert House and colleagues, the GLOBE Project surveyed 17,000 managers across 62 countries to identify universal and culture-specific leadership qualities.

How do collectivist cultures view leadership?

Collectivist cultures value charismatic and team-oriented leaders more.

What do gender egalitarian cultures value in leadership?

Gender egalitarian cultures value participative leadership.

How are hierarchical cultures characterized in terms of leadership?

Hierarchical cultures tolerate status-conscious and formalistic leaders.

What does Social Identity Theory (SIT) emphasize about leadership?

SIT emphasizes that leadership is a group-level process where leaders emerge by representing the group's identity.

What is prototypicality in the context of SIT?

Prototypicality refers to how well someone represents the group's identity.

What did the study by Hains, Hogg, & Duck (1997) reveal about group identity and leader preference?

Members with strong group identity preferred prototypical leaders.

What leadership qualities are preferred during intergroup situations?

People prefer leaders who represent their group's uniqueness, differentiate from others, and promote the group's superiority.

What happens to leaders who appease the outgroup during intergroup conflict?

Leaders who appease the outgroup may lose support from their own group.

What strategies do successful leaders often employ?

Successful leaders portray themselves as 'one of us', create conflict with other groups, and present a unique and positive vision for the group's future.

What are Leader Appeal Strategies according to Haslam et al. (2015) and Halevy et al. (2011)?

Effective leaders use self-presentation to align with the group prototype.

What strategies do effective leaders use to align with group values?

Effective leaders use self-presentation to align with group prototypes, claim to represent group values, differentiate their group from others, and promote a compelling group identity and future.

Who proposed Social Role Theory and what does it explain?

Social Role Theory was proposed by Alice Eagly and explains sex differences in leadership by recognizing that men and women take on different societal roles, which create gender stereotypes influencing perceptions of leaders.

What traits do group members expect from leaders according to leadership expectations?

Group members expect traits such as competition, high energy, dominance, commanding presence, and control over situations, which align more with male stereotypes.

What are the gender stereotypes associated with women and men in leadership?

Women are associated with expressive qualities (nurturing, emotional, warm), while men are associated with instrumental qualities (productive, energetic, strong). This leads to the subconscious equating of 'leader' with 'male'.

What is role incongruity in the context of leadership?

Role incongruity refers to the mismatch between leadership roles, which match male stereotypes, and female stereotypes, making it harder for women to emerge as leaders and creating a double standard in evaluations.

What is the Catch-22 situation for female leaders?

Female leaders face a Catch-22 where acting too feminine is seen as weak, while acting too masculine is perceived as unfeminine, leading to a no-win situation.

What are the three ways women may respond to stereotypes in leadership?

Women may respond by avoiding leadership roles, underperforming due to stereotype pressure, or resisting stereotypes and challenging others' expectations.

What does Terror Management Theory (TMT) explain?

TMT explains why people are drawn to powerful leaders during crises by analyzing how we manage our fear of death, proposing that awareness of mortality causes existential anxiety that can be reduced by embracing cultural values, strengthening self-esteem, and supporting leaders who restore order.

What happens to leadership preferences during crises according to TMT?

During crises, mortality becomes salient, leading people to prefer leaders from their own group and male leaders over female leaders, supporting Social Role Theory.

What are the main qualities of a task-oriented leader?

A task-oriented leader is characterized by strategic planning, goal-setting, and providing structure.

What qualities define a relationship-oriented leader?

A relationship-oriented leader is defined by compassion, trust, and emotional connection.

What are the key attributes of a charismatic leader?

A charismatic leader is known for having a long-term vision, promoting national pride, and fostering unity.

What was the finding regarding leader preferences in the control group versus the mortality salience group?

The control group favored task- and relationship-oriented leaders, while the mortality salience group favored the charismatic leader.