Unit 4

Conformity

Changing behavior or beliefs to fit in with a group.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules for behavior in a group.

Relative Deprivation

Feeling disadvantaged compared to others.

Example: Feeling poor because your friends have better phones.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing yourself to people better off than you.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing yourself to people worse off than you.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because you believe others know better.

Obedience

Following orders from authority.

Social Facilitation

Better performance on easy tasks when others are watching.

Group Polarization

Group discussion makes opinions more extreme.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony overrides critical thinking.

Bystander Effect

Less likely to help when others are present.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Responsibility is shared, so no one acts.

Social Loafing

Putting in less effort in a group.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness in a group.

emotion

A response involving arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience.

Elicitors

Stimuli that trigger emotions.
Example: A loud noise causing fear.

Arousal Comes Before Emotion (James–Lange Theory)

We feel physical arousal first, then label it as an emotion.

Example: Heart races → “I must be scared.”

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions influence emotions.

Example: Smiling makes you feel happier.

Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously (Cannon–Bard Theory)

Physical arousal and emotion happen at the same time.

Example: You feel fear and your heart races simultaneously.

Arousal + Cognitive Label = Emotion (Schachter–Singer / Two-Factor Theory)

Emotion depends on physical arousal plus interpretation.

Example: Heart racing + “danger” = fear; heart racing + “date” = excitement.

Broaden-and-Build Theory of Emotion

Positive emotions expand thinking and build long-term resources.

Example: Happiness helps you be creative and social.

Universal Emotions

Emotions recognized across cultures.

Example: Happiness, anger, fear, sadness.

Display Rules

Cultural rules for expressing emotions.
Example: Hiding anger in public.

Psychodynamic Theory

Behavior is influenced by unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences.

Preconscious Mind

Thoughts that are not in awareness but can be easily recalled.

Example: Your phone number when someone asks.

Unconscious Mind

Thoughts and desires outside awareness that influence behavior.

Example: Unexplained anxiety.

Projective Tests

Tests that reveal unconscious thoughts by ambiguous stimuli.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety.

Example: Making excuses after failure.

Denial

Definition: Refusing to accept reality.
Example: Ignoring a medical diagnosis.

Displacement

Definition: Redirecting emotions to a safer target.
Example: Yelling at a sibling after a bad day.

Projection

Definition: Attributing your own feelings to others.
Example: Accusing others of being angry when you are.

Rationalization

Definition: Creating logical excuses for unacceptable behavior.
Example: “I failed because the test was unfair.”

Reaction Formation

Definition: Acting opposite to true feelings.
Example: Being overly nice to someone you dislike.

Regression

Definition: Reverting to earlier behaviors under stress.
Example: Thumb-sucking when upset.

Repression

Definition: Pushing painful thoughts into the unconscious.
Example: Forgetting a traumatic event.

Sublimation

Definition: Channeling unacceptable impulses into acceptable actions.
Example: Aggression → sports.

Humanistic Psychology

Definition: Focuses on personal growth, free will, and self-fulfillment.
Example: Therapy that helps people reach their potential.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Definition: Accepting and valuing a person without conditions.
Example: A parent loves a child no matter what.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

Definition: Inborn drive to reach full potential.
Example: Wanting to improve skills and grow as a person.

Social-Cognitive Theory

Definition: Personality results from interaction of behavior, environment, and thinking.
Example: Learning confidence by watching others succeed.

Reciprocal Determinism

Definition: Behavior, environment, and personal factors influence each other.
Example: Confidence → more practice → better performance → more confidence.

Self-Concept

Definition: How you see and describe yourself.
Example: “I’m outgoing and creative.”

Self-Efficacy

Definition: Belief in your ability to succeed at tasks.
Example: Believing you can pass a test if you study.

Self-Esteem

Definition: Overall self-worth.
Example: Feeling good about yourself.

Trait Theories

Definition: Personality is made up of stable characteristics (traits).
Example: Someone is consistently shy or outgoing.

Big Five Theory

Definition: Five major personality traits that describe people.
Example: OCEAN traits.

Personality Inventories

Definition: Questionnaires that assess personality traits.
Example: Myers-Briggs test.

Factor Analysis

Definition: Statistical method that groups related traits.
Example: Identifying the Big Five traits.

Openness to Experience

Definition: Willingness to try new ideas and experiences.
Example: Enjoying art and new cultures.

Conscientiousness

Definition: Being organized and responsible.
Example: Always finishing homework on time.

Agreeableness

Definition: Being kind and cooperative.
Example: Helping others easily.

Emotional Stability (Neuroticism – reversed)

Definition: Ability to stay calm and emotionally balanced.
Example: Not panicking under stress.