Chapter 2 International history

AICE International History Study Guide Notes

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2.1 - Peace Settlements of 1919-20

Key Concepts

• European nations engaged in a ‘scramble for Africa’ due to economic interests, competition for imperial dominance, and nationalistic fervor.

• The US initiated naval modernization to project power and secure its interests, influenced by conflicts like the Spanish-American War.

• Japan transformed significantly due to increased diplomatic interactions, leading to modernization and industrialization.

• British diplomacy shifted closer to France post-1898 to counterbalance German power, especially after the Fashoda Incident.

• US foreign policy grew imperialistic post-1898, encouraged by victories in the Spanish-American War and ideology of Manifest Destiny.

Important Events and Documents

1. Russian Revolution: A series of revolutions in 1917 leading to the fall of Tsar Nicholas II and establishment of Bolshevik rule.

2. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Peace treaty between Russia and Germany in 1918, ceding vast territories to Germany.

3. Paris Peace Settlement: Collection of treaties that officially ended WWI, predominantly shaped by the ‘Big Three’.

4. The Big Three: Leaders of the UK, USA, and France (Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson, Georges Clemenceau) with varying objectives: security, national interests, and self-determination.

5. 14-Points: Wilson’s framework for peace addressing factors leading to the war and establishing a basis for future peace.

6. Treaty of Versailles: The main treaty of the Paris Peace Settlement that imposed strict sanctions on Germany.

7. War Guilt Clause: Article 231 in the Treaty of Versailles assigning blame to Germany for the war.

8. German Objections: Germany argued the treaty was excessively punitive and unjust, leading to feelings of betrayal.

9. Treaty of Trianon, Treaty of Neuilly, Treaty of Saint Germain, Treaty of Sevres: Treaties establishing borders and terms for successor states in Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

10. Allied and Central Powers Reactions: Varied acceptance and rejection leading to political instability and resentment in the interwar period.

11. Problems in Successor States: Ethnic tensions, economic instability, and national identity crises emerged post-settlements.

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2.2 - International Tensions (1920-1923)

Key Concepts

• International tensions remained high due to economic hardships, ideological conflicts, and territorial disputes.

• The Washington Conference: Aimed to prevent naval arms race; led to several treaties limiting naval armaments.

• The Genoa Conference sought to address economic recovery but failed due to disagreements, particularly regarding reparations.

• The Rapallo Pact established diplomatic relations between Germany and USSR, alarming other European powers.

• The Treaty of Lausanne formalized the end of the Ottoman Empire and redrew boundaries in the Middle East.

Crises and Tensions Described

1. US Isolationism: America’s reluctance to involve itself in European affairs led to strained relationships.

2. Attitudes towards Russia: Western powers were suspicious of Bolshevik ideology, complicating relations.

3. German Hyperinflation: Economic crisis leading to social unrest and undermining the Weimar Republic.

4. Ruhr Crisis: French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr in response to Germany's failure to pay reparations, escalating tensions.

5. Attitudes towards Germany: Nations were divided on how to approach post-war Germany, influencing diplomatic dynamics.

6. Corfu Incident: An international dispute that revealed the weaknesses of the League of Nations in diplomatic interventions.

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2.4 - Success of the League of Nations in the 1920s

Key Concepts

• The League, established in 1920 following WWI, aimed to promote peace and cooperation but faced significant challenges.

Organizational Structure

• The League consisted of an Assembly, a Council, and a Permanent Court of International Justice—but lacked effective enforcement powers.

Successes of the League

1. Teschen (1920): Mediated dispute between Poland and Czechoslovakia, demonstrating the League's ability to resolve conflicts peacefully.

2. The Aland Islands (1921): Resolved without conflict; Finland retained sovereignty while ensuring Swedish rights.

3. Upper Silesia (1921): Successfully held a plebiscite to determine the region's nationality.

4. Yugoslavia-Albania (1921): Mediated a border dispute effectively.

5. Memel (1924), Mosul (1924), Greece-Bulgaria (1925): Instances where the League managed to ease tensions among nations.

Failures of the League

1. Vilna (1920): Failed to prevent Polish takeover, demonstrating the limitations of its power.

2. Treaty of Riga (1921): The League’s inability to mediate this treaty’s terms reflected its weaknesses.

3. Invasion of the Ruhr (1923): Showed the League’s powerlessness amidst major international crises.

4. Corfu Incident (1923): A failure that illustrated difficulties in collective actions among major powers.

Weaknesses of the League

• Lack of universal membership (notably the absence of the USA).

• Decisions requiring unanimous consent often led to deadlock.

• Insufficient military power to enforce resolutions.

League Agencies

1. International Labor Organization (ILO): Aimed to promote fair labor practices.

2. International Commission for Refugees: Addressed the humanitarian crises post-WWI.

3. Health Organization: Worked on global health issues but faced resource limitations.

4. Mandates Commission: Supervised territories under mandates to ensure administration aligned with League principles.

5. Financial Assistance: Provided support for war-torn countries in economic recovery efforts.