ES FINAL EXAM REVIEW: 2ND SEMESTER

Meteor

A solid cosmic object that enters Earth's atmosphere, producing a bright trail.

Meteorite

A fragment of a meteor that survives passage through the atmosphere and lands on Earth.

Radiometric Dating

A technique used to date materials by determining the relative amounts of radioactive isotopes present.

Isotopes

Variants of a chemical element that have different numbers of neutrons.

Radioactive Decay

The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation.

Half-life

The time required for half of the radioactive isotopes in a sample to decay.

Fission

The process of splitting a nucleus into smaller parts, releasing a significant amount of energy.

Fusion

The process of combining two lighter atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy.

Main Sequence Stars

Stars that are in a stable state of hydrogen burning in their cores.

Red Giants

Large stars that have expanded and cooled after exhausting hydrogen in their cores.

Supernova

A powerful explosion that occurs during a star's death, resulting in the ejection of its outer layers.

Terrestrial Planet

A rocky planet, including Earth, Mars, Venus, and Mercury.

Jovian Planet

A gas giant planet, including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Solar Nebula Condensation Theory

A theory explaining the formation of the solar system from a rotating cloud of gas and dust.

Angular Momentum

A measure of the quantity of rotation of an object, conserved in a closed system.

Condensation

The process of gas turning into liquid or solid as it cools.

Accretion

The process by which particles collide and stick together, forming larger bodies.

Planetesimals

Small celestial bodies that formed from dust and gas in the solar nebula.

Protoplanets

Large planetary bodies formed from the accumulation of planetesimals.

Protosun

The central body in a young solar system that eventually becomes a star.

T-Tauri Wind

Strong stellar winds emitted during the early stages of a star's formation.

Kepler's Laws

Three laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun.

Emission Line Spectrum

The spectrum of light emitted by a substance when it is energized.

Spectroscopy

The study of the interaction between light and matter.

Excited Electron

An electron that has absorbed energy and moved to a higher energy level.

Photon

A quantum of electromagnetic radiation.

Gravitational Differentiation

The process by which denser materials sink and lighter materials rise within a planetary body.

Crust

The outermost layer of a planet, characterized by solid rock.

Mantle

The layer of the Earth located between the crust and the outer core.

Outer Core

The liquid layer of the Earth's core beneath the mantle.

Inner Core

The solid, innermost layer of the Earth's core.

Lithosphere

The rigid outer layer of the Earth, comprising the crust and upper mantle.

Asthenosphere

The semi-fluid layer of the mantle beneath the lithosphere.

Seismographs

Instruments used to detect and record seismic waves.

Faults

Fractures in the Earth's crust where blocks of rock have moved.

Seismic Waves

Waves of energy that travel through the Earth, produced by earthquakes.

Transverse Waves

Waves in which particle motion is perpendicular to wave direction.

Longitudinal Waves

Waves in which particle motion is parallel to wave direction.

P Waves

Primary waves; fast-moving seismic waves that compress and expand the ground.

S Waves

Secondary waves; slower seismic waves that move the ground up and down.

Hypocenter

The point within the Earth where an earthquake originates.

Epicenter

The point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter of an earthquake.

Seismogram

A record produced by a seismograph, showing the motion of the ground.

Radiation

The emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles.

Conduction

The transfer of heat through a material without the movement of the material.

Convection

The transfer of heat by the movement of fluids (liquids or gases).

Tectonic Plates

Large, rigid pieces of the Earth's lithosphere that move and interact.

Transform Boundary

A tectonic plate boundary where two plates slide past each other.

Divergent Boundary

A tectonic plate boundary where two plates move away from each other.

Convergent Boundary

A tectonic plate boundary where two plates collide or move toward each other.

Richter Scale of Earthquake Magnitude

A logarithmic scale used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes.

San Andreas Fault

A major transform fault in California that marks the boundary between the Pacific and North American plates.

Subduction Zone

A region where one tectonic plate moves under another, leading to volcanic activity.

Magma

Molten rock beneath the Earth's surface.

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks that form beneath the Earth's surface from cooled magma.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks that form on the Earth's surface from cooled lava.

Hot Spot

An area of volcanic activity resulting from a plume of hot material from the mantle.

Shield Volcano

A large, gently sloping volcano built up by the flow of low-viscosity lava.

Stratovolcano

A steep, conical volcano built from alternating layers of lava and sediment.

Pyroclastic Flows

Rapid flows of hot gas and volcanic matter that travel down the sides of a volcano.

Tephra

Fragmented material ejected by a volcanic eruption.

Volcanic Ash

Tiny particles of volcanic rock and glass produced during eruptions.

Magma Chamber

A reservoir of magma beneath a volcano.

Lahars

Destructive volcanic mudflows that occur when volcanic material mixes with water.

Earthquakes

Sudden shaking of the ground caused by the movement of tectonic plates.

Pumice

A light, porous volcanic rock that forms when lava cools rapidly with gas bubbles trapped.

Gas Measurements

The analysis of gases emitted from volcanic eruptions to measure volcanic activity.

GPS Coordinates / Visual Bulges

Tools used to monitor land deformation and movement.

Mountain Range

A series of connected mountains formed by tectonic forces.

Island Chain

A series of islands formed by volcanic activity or the rising of land.

Ocean Trench

A deep, narrow depression in the ocean floor formed by tectonic activity.

Mid-Ocean Ridges

Underwater mountain ranges formed by tectonic plate divergence.

Ocean Mapping

The process of charting the ocean floor and its features.

Mercator Projection

A cylindrical map projection used for navigation, distorting sizes at the poles.

Ocean Crust Age Map

A depiction of varying ages of crust formed at mid-ocean ridges.

Paleomagnetic Data

Data obtained from Earth's magnetic field recorded in rocks to study plate tectonics.

East African Rift

A tectonic plate boundary where the African plate is splitting into two smaller plates.

Island Arc

A chain of islands formed above a subduction zone.

Levee

A raised bank along a river to prevent flooding.

Subsiding

The gradual sinking of land due to various geological processes.

Drainage Basin

An area of land where all water drains to a common waterway.

Watershed

A region or area that separates waters flowing to different rivers.

Mouth of River

The point where a river meets another body of water.

Tributaries

Smaller streams or rivers that flow into a larger river.

Upper Course

The section of a river nearest to its source, characterized by steep gradients.

Middle Course

The section of a river where it flows more gently and meanders.

Lower Course

The section of a river where it approaches its mouth and usually has low gradients.

Erosion

The process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface.

Distributary

A river branch that diverges from the main river and flows away from the main flow.

Delta

A landform created by sediment deposited at a river's mouth.

Lobes (Delta)

The individual sections of sediment deposits in a delta.

Bed Load

Sediments that are transported along the bottom of a river.

Suspended Load

Sediments that are carried in the water column of a river.

Floodplain

An area adjacent to a river prone to flooding.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks formed from fragments of other rocks.

Shale

A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of mud and clay.

Sandstone

A sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized mineral particles.

Conglomerate

A sedimentary rock composed of rounded fragments cemented together.

Floodways

Designated paths for floodwaters to flow, usually adjacent to rivers.

Progrades

The advance of a sedimentary deposit forward or downward.