TEST 2

What was the 2nd Continental Congress, and why was it significant?

Convened in 1775 after the battles of Lexington and Concord, it functioned as the de facto national government during the Revolutionary War. It created the Continental Army under George Washington, managed the war effort, and eventually drafted and adopted the Declaration of Independence.

What was “The Declaration,” and why was it revolutionary?

The Declaration of Independence (1776), primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, proclaimed that “all men are created equal” and possess natural rights to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” It broke political ties with Britain and introduced Enlightenment ideals of popular sovereignty — that government exists by consent of the governed.

Who was Alexander Hamilton, and what were his main ideas?

Hamilton was a Founding Father, aide to Washington, and the first Secretary of the Treasury. He advocated for a strong central government, a national bank, assumption of state debts, and industrial development. As leader of the Federalists, he opposed Jefferson’s agrarian republican vision.

What were the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans, and how did they differ?

The Federalists (Hamilton, Adams) favored a strong national government, loose interpretation of the Constitution, and close ties with Britain. The Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson, Madison) promoted states’ rights, agrarianism, strict interpretation, and sympathy with France. Their conflict shaped America’s first party system.

Why was George Washington chosen as leader, and why was he admired?

Washington was respected for his integrity, military experience, and ability to unite factions. As general, he embodied republican virtue—refusing power after victory. As president, he set precedents for neutrality, cabinet government, and peaceful transfer of power, earning comparison to the Roman Cincinnatus.

Who was Citizen Genet, and what was the Jay Treaty controversy?

Citizen Edmond Genet, a French diplomat, tried to rally American support for France’s wars, undermining Washington’s neutrality. The Jay Treaty (1794) with Britain sought to resolve trade and border disputes. Critics saw it as pro-British, deepening the Federalist–Republican divide.

What is Republicanism and Civic Virtue, and why were they central to the Revolution?

Republicanism held that sovereignty resides in the people, not monarchs. Civic virtue—citizens’ willingness to sacrifice for the common good—was its moral foundation. Figures like Cincinnatus and Washington embodied these ideals, seen as necessary for a stable republic.

What was the Whiskey Rebellion, and what did it demonstrate?

In 1794, western Pennsylvania farmers revolted against a federal tax on whiskey. Washington sent troops to suppress it, showing that the new Constitution empowered the federal government to maintain order—unlike under the Articles of Confederation.

How did slavery feature in the Revolution, especially through petitions?

Enslaved and free Black Americans appealed to revolutionary ideals, submitting petitions to state legislatures demanding emancipation. Figures like Prince Hall argued that liberty must apply to all. Northern states like Massachusetts began gradual abolition as a result.

What was the significance of Washington’s Farewell Address (1796)?

Washington warned against political parties and permanent foreign alliances. He urged unity, morality, and national independence. His advice shaped U.S. foreign policy—especially the tradition of avoiding entangling alliances.

What was Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation (1775)?

Virginia’s royal governor, Lord Dunmore, offered freedom to enslaved people who joined British forces against the rebels. It terrified slaveholders and revealed the Revolution’s contradictions between liberty and slavery.

Who was John Adams, and what defined his presidency?

Adams, a Federalist and Revolutionary leader, faced rising partisan division. His presidency saw the Quasi-War with France, the Alien and Sedition Acts, and deepening conflict with Jefferson’s Republicans. Despite controversy, he maintained peace and built the Navy.

Who was Dr. Benjamin Rush, and what was the Pennsylvania Abolition Society (PAS)?

A physician and signer of the Declaration, Rush—guided by Quaker abolitionist Anthony Benezet—joined the PAS, founded in 1775. The society promoted education, employment, and moral reform among freed Blacks, representing early organized abolitionism.

What was the XYZ Affair, and how did it lead to the Quasi-War?

In 1797, French agents demanded bribes from American diplomats (called X, Y, and Z) before negotiations. Public outrage led to the undeclared naval “Quasi-War” with France (1798–1800). Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert expanded the U.S. Navy, securing early victories.

Who was Phillis Wheatley, and why was she important?

Enslaved at age seven, Wheatley became the first published African American poet. Her writings praised liberty and faith, showing intellectual equality and the moral capacity of Black Americans.

What were the Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), and why were they controversial?

Passed under Adams, these laws allowed deportation of “dangerous” aliens and punished criticism of the government. Republicans saw them as unconstitutional violations of free speech, sparking the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.

What were Fabian Tactics, and how did Washington use them at Trenton?

Modeled after the Roman general Fabius Maximus, Fabian tactics avoided direct battles and relied on attrition. Washington’s surprise attack on Trenton (1776) used deception and timing to defeat Hessians, reviving American morale.

What were the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798–99)?

Drafted by Jefferson and Madison, they argued that states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws—like the Alien and Sedition Acts. They defended states’ rights but foreshadowed later secession arguments.

What was the significance of Saratoga and Valley Forge?

Saratoga (1777) was a turning point that convinced France to ally with the U.S. Valley Forge (1777–78) tested the Continental Army’s endurance; under Baron von Steuben, it emerged disciplined and unified.

What was the Judiciary Act of 1801, and who were the “Midnight Judges”?

Passed in the final days of Adams’s term, the act reorganized the courts and added new federal judgeships, filled with Federalists before Jefferson took office. It was an attempt to preserve Federalist influence in the judiciary.

What was the Southern Campaign, and what happened at Kings Mountain (1780)?

The British shifted focus to the South expecting Loyalist support. Instead, Patriot militias won at Kings Mountain, where frontiersmen defeated Loyalists in a purely American battle—turning the tide of the war in the South.

Who was Thomas Jefferson, and what defined Jeffersonian ideals?

Jefferson championed limited government, agrarian democracy, and individual liberty. His vision contrasted Hamilton’s industrialism. As president, he reduced federal power, purchased Louisiana, and sought to preserve republican simplicity.

What was the Battle of Yorktown (1781), and why was it decisive?

Combined American and French forces trapped Cornwallis’s army at Yorktown, Virginia. With French naval support blocking escape, the British surrendered—effectively ending the Revolutionary War.

What was the Embargo of 1807 (“O Grab Me”)?

Jefferson’s embargo banned American trade with all foreign nations to pressure Britain and France to respect U.S. neutrality. It backfired, devastating American commerce and provoking public anger—satirized as “O Grab Me” (embargo spelled backward).

What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

The Articles created a weak national government with no power to tax, enforce laws, or regulate trade. Each state had one vote, and amendments required unanimity. The system proved ineffective in addressing debt and rebellion (e.g., Shays’ Rebellion).

Who were James and Dolley Madison, and what were their contributions?

James Madison, “Father of the Constitution,” helped draft the Constitution and Bill of Rights. His wife, Dolley, redefined the role of First Lady, promoting unity through social diplomacy and famously saving Washington’s portrait during the War of 1812.

What was the Newburgh Conspiracy (1783)

Frustrated Continental officers planned a possible coup over unpaid wages. Washington defused the crisis with a heartfelt speech reminding them of their shared sacrifices, preserving civilian control over the military.

What were Macon’s Bill No. 2 and Impressment?

Passed in 1810, Macon’s Bill reopened trade with Britain and France but promised to cut off trade with either nation that violated U.S. neutrality. Impressment—the British seizure of American sailors—continued, helping lead to the War of 1812.

Who was Robert Morris, and what was the Impost Plan?

Morris, the “Financier of the Revolution,” proposed a small import tax (the Impost) to fund government debt repayment under the Articles. States rejected it, showing the Confederation’s fiscal weakness and prompting calls for constitutional reform.

Who was Tecumseh, and what was the Creek War?

Shawnee leader Tecumseh allied tribes to resist U.S. expansion. His followers influenced the Red Stick Creeks to fight American settlers. Andrew Jackson’s victory at Horseshoe Bend (1814) crushed Native resistance, forcing major land cessions in the Treaty of Fort Jackson.

What was Shays’ Rebellion (1786–87)?

Led by Daniel Shays, Massachusetts farmers protested debt and taxes, closing courts. The rebellion exposed the inability of the Articles government to maintain order, leading to calls for a stronger national government and the Constitutional Convention

Who were the War Hawks, and what caused the War of 1812?

The War Hawks, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, were young congressmen pushing for war with Britain to defend national honor and expand territory. Causes included British impressment, trade restrictions, and support for Native resistance.

What were the key issues and figures at the Constitutional Convention (1787)?

Delegates like Madison, Hamilton, and Gouverneur Morris debated representation, slavery, and federal power. The Great Compromise created a bicameral Congress, while the 3/5 Compromise settled slave representation. The resulting Constitution strengthened national authority.

What was the Hartford Convention (1814), and what were its results?

Federalists from New England met to protest the War of 1812 and propose constitutional amendments to limit Southern power. Their perceived disloyalty destroyed the Federalist Party after the war’s patriotic victory.

How did slavery influence the Constitution?

Delegates compromised to maintain unity—counting enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for representation, protecting the slave trade until 1808, and requiring the return of fugitive slaves. These concessions preserved national unity but entrenched slavery.

What happened at the Battle of New Orleans (1815), and why was Andrew Jackson celebrated?

After the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812 (unknown to the armies), Jackson defeated a superior British force with few American losses. His victory made him a national hero and symbol of American resilience.

Who were Gouverneur Morris and James Madison, and what roles did they play in forming the Constitution?

Madison drafted the Virginia Plan and much of the Constitution’s framework. Gouverneur Morris penned much of its final language, including the famous preamble “We the People,” emphasizing unity and popular sovereignty.

What was Henry Clay’s “American System”?

Clay’s plan sought national economic growth through a national bank, protective tariffs, and internal improvements (roads, canals). It aimed to link regions and promote self-sufficiency during the postwar “Era of Good Feelings.”

Who were the Antifederalists, and why did they push for a Bill of Rights?

The Antifederalists opposed the Constitution’s strong central government, fearing tyranny. Their pressure led to adoption of the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights), guaranteeing freedoms of speech, press, religion, and due process.

What was the Lowell System, and why was it significant?

The Lowell textile mills in Massachusetts integrated all stages of textile production under one roof, employing young women (“Lowell girls”) who lived in supervised dorms. It symbolized early American industrialization and the changing workforce.

What was the Missouri Compromise (1820), and why was it important?

Proposed by Henry Clay, it admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining balance in the Senate. It banned slavery north of 36°30′ in the Louisiana Purchase territory—temporarily easing sectional conflict.

Who is a modern cinnauts?

George Washington

Who was the quaker that initiated abolition?

Anthony Benzet

The Hartford Convention

Proposed Amendments:

• Prohibited any trade embargo lasting over 60 days:

• Required a 2/3rds congressional majority for any declaration of war, admission of a new state, or interdiction of foreign commerce;

• Naturalized citizens ineligible for election to the congress or any other federal office or position;

• Shifted the bulk of federal tax payments to the slaveholding south by abolishing the 3/5th clause;

• Limited any future presidents to one term; 

• Required each future president to be from a different state than his predecessor

Who was James Monroe, and what was his significance as president?

James Monroe was the fifth president of the United States (1817–1825) and the last of the “Virginia Dynasty” of early presidents. Trained in law by Thomas Jefferson, Monroe served with distinction as an ambassador, U.S. senator, governor of Virginia, and secretary of state before becoming president. His administration, known as the “Era of Good Feelings,” was marked by national unity, the decline of partisan politics, and important developments like the Missouri Compromise and the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted U.S. opposition to European interference in the Americas.

What did Thomas Jefferson mean when he said, “This momentous question like a fireball in the night awakened me and filled me with terror”?

Thomas Jefferson wrote this line in response to the Missouri Question (1819–1820)—the debate over whether slavery should expand into the new Missouri Territory. The controversy led to the Missouri Compromise, which allowed Missouri to enter as a slave state and Maine as a free state while banning slavery north of 36°30′ latitude. Jefferson feared this issue would divide the Union along sectional (North–South) lines, describing it as a “fireball in the night” that threatened to destroy the fragile unity of the United States. His remark reflected early recognition of slavery as a moral and political crisis that could one day tear the nation apart.