Meta-ethics
Concerned with certain formal questions about or features of morality.
Applied ethics
Addresses the moral permissibility of specific actions and practices
Normative ethics
The reasoned construction of moral principles. It is concerned with theories outlining the most basic goods, virtues or principles of right
Utilitarianism
A normative ethical theory. It tries to get a fundamental principle of what is right and wrong
Deontological
Account basic moral rules prescribing right acts, proscribing wrong acts. Focuses on the inherent nature of acts; on their falling into moral kinds (obligatory/forbidden/permitted) which are fixed by a set of rules
Virtues
Account of human excellences/virtues of the morally noble person. Morally right acts are ones done by a certain kind of person
Consequentialist
Account desirable results flowing from acts. Focus is on achieving maximum of these desirable results. We must determine the consequences of an act and see if these are desirable.
Utility
The state of being useful, profitable or beneficial
Jeremy Bentham Quote
“That property in any object, whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness or to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil or unhappiness”
Hedonism
The ethical theory that pleasure is the highest good and proper aim of human life.
Fecundity
Abundance
Alturiss
Giving the greatest amount of happiness to the biggest number of people
Problems with classic utilitarianism
How to weigh up the greatest happiness?
Can pleasure be weighed? Surely it is subjective
J Bentham
Principle of Utility
Everyone has an equal right to happiness
Hedonic calculus
Principle of Utility
An action is judged good or bad according to the results that it achieved
Hedonic calculus
A method of working out the sum of the total pleasure and pain produced by and act and the total value of its consequences
How Hedonic calculus is measured
It’s duration - how long will it last
It’s intensity - how intense is it
Propinquity - how near, immediate, certain or remote it is
Purity - how free from pain is the benefit
Fecundity - whether or not it is likely to lead to more happiness
Certainty - how probable it is
Extent - how widely it covers
Criticism of hedonic views
Murderers can take pleasure in killing people and the pain produced by their actions also has to be considered
Act utilitarianism
Where what is right is based on assessing the results of particular actions.
Principle of Utility
The greatest good for the greatest number
Benevolent
Having no self-interest in something.
Impartial
No bias towards something
Rule utilitarianism
Takes into account the general benefit in people following general rules
Autonomy
Free will
Strong rule utilitarianism
Holds that one should never break a rule that is established on utilitarianism principles
Weak rule utilitarianism
There may be situations when the assessment of the results of a particular act may take precedence over the general rule
Stages of utilitarianism
1st stage: refers acts to rules
2nd stage: validate the rules by reference to a principle of Utility.
Categorical imperative
Universal principle for all autonomous agents without contradiction
Not using someone else in order to increase someone else's happiness
Autonomous
Acting upon free will
Preference utilitarianism
Judges moral actions depending on whether they fit in with an individuals preference
Negative utilitarianism
Popper- it is better to minimise suffering than it is to minimise pleasure
Ideal utilitarianism
Aesthetic experiences + relations of friendship that have intrinsic value, bad things should be prevented.
Strengths of Rule utilitarianism
Avoids the need for the hedonic calculus with the simple, singular principle that people should follow the previously established laws
Emphasises the importance of protecting people in society through the moral system that prioritises fairness for everyone
Weaknesses of rule utilitarianism
Subjective - used to people’s advantage in order to justify wrong acts
Mill’s conclusion of higher and lower pleasures can be elitist as richer people enjoy higher pleasures and we need the lower pleasures to survive
Strengths of Act utilitarianism
Focuses on the outcome on the situation and aims to get the best result for the greatest number of people
Uses the hedonic calculus - used to measure aspects of pleasure to decide whether an action is considered right or wrong
Weaknesses of Act utilitarianism
It is not possible to quantify someone’s happiness - Listing the elements of pleasure does not change the fact that it is impossible to quantify
Hedonic calculus can become a reason to justify immoral acts
Strengths of preference utilitarianism
Does not require any calculations to figure out the morally best thing to do - focuses on what is best for everyone personally
Flexible - can be applied to a wide range of desires/happiness
Weakness of preference utilitarianism
Certain personal preferences can lead to immorality - certain individuals can have a preference for a cruelty of others
Heavily relies on preference - does not evaluate the moral outcomes/value of actions
Strengths of negative utilitarianism
Better to reduce pain than to increase pleasure by the same amount
Easier to remove harm than to increase happiness - we do not require a large amount of happiness in order to survive