Religion Sociology paper 3

religion

functional definition- what a religion does (its purpose) as opposed to what it is e.g a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggle with the ultimate problems of human life

substantive definition- the content of a religion, what a religion is e.g the existence of a supernatural being that has a governing effect on life

Durkhiem- sacred & profane

religious belief

the values and ideas that a religious person holds to be true e.g monotheism, jesus is son of god (christianity), haram to drink (islam)

belief as an intensity- the intensity of a persons beliefs is what makes them religious, a strength that surpasses any other beliefs such as politics

belief as ultimate concerns- Tilich, religious beliefs are beliefs that concern an individual in a fundamental way e.g life and death, good and evil, origin of life

religious faith

faith as trust- Fowler, a person focuses their supreme trust and loyalty in a transcendent centre of value (god)

underpinning the way we live our lives- Fowler, faith is the bedrock of how we all try to live a meaningful life

deeper than belief- it is emotional rather than intellectual, belief is a product of the mind while belief is a product of the heart, seen as a devotion

church

Troeltsch

a type of large religious organisation

size- large, national or international

leadership- strong hierarchal structure of religious professionals

lifespan- over centuries

attitude to society- conservative, recognises the state and government, accepts society

claim to truth- monopoly on truth

membership- little commitment needed, often from birth, born into the church

example: Church Of England

founded by Henry VIII in 1538 after he separated from the roman catholic church to be able to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon

Denomination

Niebuhr

similar to a church but has small differences

size- fairly large, national/regional

lifespan- centuries but can be shorter

attitude to society- recognises the state and accepts society but is less connected to the state than a church

claims to truth- they dont claim a monopoly on truth

membership- stronger commitment than a church

other features- sometimes they are a subgroup within a wider church

example: Pentecostalism

emerged in early 20th century, denomination of christianity, emphasise the work of the holy spirit, 500 ,million adherents worldwide

Sect

Troeltsch

diametrically opposed to churches

size- small

leadership- often a dominant charismatic leader

lifespan- decades, a generation or two

attitude to society- world rejecting, deliberately disconnected from society

claims to truth- monopoly in truth

membership- requires exceptional commitment, withdraw contact from wider society

example: Jehovahs Witnesses

8.5 million people, founded in the 1970s by Charles Taze Russell, rejects common medical practices sucb as blood transfusions, believe people who are not witnesses to be influenced by satan

Cult

Rhode

religious or social group with socially deviant beliefs and practices

size- from small to fairly large

leadership- authoritarian leadership, excessive control on the group of people

lifespan- short lived, as long as the leader lives

attitude to society- isolationism, world rejecting, cuts themselves from the rest of the world

claims to truth- exclusivism, they alone know the truth

membership- opposes independent thinking, fear of being disfellowes

example: Scientology

founded in 1952 by L. Ron Hubbard, believes that humans are immortal spiritual beings that are living in human bodies, they cut off SPs who are suppressive people who dont believe in scientology, their aim is to improve themselves so much they can ascend their physical bodies, 100,000 to 200,000 members

new religious movements

Relatively modern religious organisations. they are different and separated from the dominant religious culture which they are a part of. they have completely different beliefs from the rest of society or their beliefs are rejected by wider religions. they are often converts, they did not grow up with this religion but have converted to it , they tend to be highly committed and enthusiastic.

Wallis:

3 ways to spot a NRM

world affirming- the norms and values of society are accepted and the beliefs and practices of the group help people to function within the society

world rejecting- rejects and criticises the norms and values of the surrounding culture often living in their own communities to avoid the outside world

world accommodating- neither rejects or promotes the secular world

Example: Moonies

unification church- founded in1950s in south korea by Sun Myung Moon, branch of christianity, 15-25k members, they have big weddings of hundreds of people getting married at the same time

New age movement

Spiritual movement that emerged in 70s/80s, sense of connection to something bigger than outselves.

Steve Bruce- self development and individualism, appeals to successful middle class people especially those in creative professions such as writers

key values:

healing (physically & mentally), nature, individualism, magic

Example: Astrology

a persons personality can be predicted by the position of the stars and planets on the day they were born, zodiac signs, can predict certain events in a persons based on the planetary alignment

religious fundamentalism

a religious point of view rather than an organisational structure, people returning to the fundamentals of their religion, seeing the most important truths which need to be reasserted

believe in: traditional gender roles, conversion, rejection of religious pluralism

Steve Bruce- causes of religious fundamentalism, modernisation and secularisation

Example: Haredi Judaism

presents itself as the only valid form of the religion, id s type of orthodox Judaism, they segregate themselves from the rest of society, encourage withdrawal from the secular world, boys and girls have separate schools, women dress modest, people who decide to leave are sometimes shunned or forced to leave their children

Durkheim Totemism

based his work ogg Australian Aborigines, the totems have divine properties that separates them from animals or plants, the worshipping of the totems bring the tribe together reaffirming the group identity

the totem is sacred since its symbolic of the group itself, it stands for the values of the community and by worshipping it they are effectively worshipping the community

Durkheim Collective Conscience

Religion reinforces the collective conscience in 2 ways

1. collective worship, people come together in religious rituals, the connection of society is strengthened

2. belief in god originated from a belief in the souls of our dead ancestors, the worship of god is really the worship of dead ancestors souls which is worshipping society which strengthens the unity of the group promoting social solidarity

evaluation of Durkheim

1. agree that religion promotes social solidarity but worshipping god is not worshipping society, how can it be worshipping society if many religions are against the way society is

2. overly positive, can cause conflicts, not always good

Malinowski Life Crises

anxiety and tension can cause disruption to life, religious rituals help to battle that

when a child is stressing about puberty and changing they have a bah mitzvah to help relieve stress

a funeral helps to bring the community together after someones death which id the worst since it removes someone from society

evaluation of Malinowski

1. many rituals arent linked to a life crises

2. many life crises dont have a ritual e.g. divorce, menopause

3. rituals dont always help, can cause more stress with planning

Parsons Value Consensus

religious belief provides guidelines for human action

10 commandments, 5 pillars

by giving general guidelines for moral beliefs it helps provide consensus that is necessary for a stable society

evaluation of Parsons

1. outdated, religion doesnt really govern our society, gay marriage legal, abortion laws

2. overly positive, religion can cause conflict

Religion as alienation

the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat is similar to god and people, alienating

a religious god is a barrier to freedom similarly to a capitalist state

the feeling of alienation from religion is so normalised that we never question it when it happens in the workforce

Opium of the people 1

E- eternal bliss, makes life on earth bare able knowing there is heaven after

V- suffering is seen as a trial and those who suffer the most will be rewarded the most

Opium of the people 2

I- supernatural intervention, live in anticipation of the day when a supernatural power will intervene (jesus coming back) the anticipation of a godly intervention can make the present more acceptable

L- legitimates the existing social order, religious justifies the social order, those at the bottom of the stratification system cab accept and come to terms with their situation

Social control: characteristics of the proletariat

religion teaches characteristics to its believers that are also the characteristics of the proletarian

christianity preaches “cowardice, self-contempt, submissiveness and humbleness” to the proletariat

evaluation of marxism

1. there is religion where this is no capitalism e.g russia

2. ethnocentric, he was mainly studying 19th century europe, his findings dont apply to other religions from around the world

3. christianity could inspire a sense of opposition against those in power

4. ignores other forms of inequality

Gramsci hegemony and counter hegemony

agrees that religion contributes to the hegemonic control of the ruling class however, workers could be able to organise against the hegemony and develop counter hegemony

religious leaders could popularise ideas that ran counter to those if the ruling class and help build s rebellion

Otto Maduro liberation theology

its an approach to religious belief that seeks to contribute to the struggle of oppressed people against economic forces

Maduro believed that religion is one of the main available channels to bring about social revolution where there is no other outlet such as in latin america

Oscar Romero liberation theology

archbishop of san salvador in el salvador, he helped to advocate for the working class in a time where the working class were discarded, he was assassinated

Meredith McGuire transformative power of religion

religion offers greater self esteem by persuading believers that they are superior leading to these groups feeling empowered to possibly change the social system

this can be seen with the Quakers who support LGBTQ+, first to be in support for slavery abolition and womens rights

evaluation of Neo-Marxism

1. too positive

2. ignores gender inequality

3. religion plays a different role for everyone so everyone had a different relationship with religion

Simone de Beauvoir

The Second Sex

men use religion to socially control women, it supports male dominance since men are seen as holier than women

religion is a tool for deception, it allows women to think they are equal to men when they arent, it also gives women the false belief that they will be compensated for their suffering on earth

Mary Daly

Beyond God the Father

god is masculine, seen as the father

the subordination of women is gods will

language and imagery of religion is often masculine

Karen Armstrong

Goddess Religions

in early religions women were considered central to spiritual quest e.g Athena goddess of wisdom, this died down due to monotheism, patriarchal religions need to be replaced by Goddess religions to get equality

Nawal El Saadawi

Hidden face of eve

see doesnt see religion itself as the main cause of oppression instead she sees it as one aspect if a wider patriarchal system which needs to be over thrown through struggle

FGM, she claims that authentic religious beliefs tend to be opposed to any such practices, religion has been distorted

religion became patriarchal through the misinterpretation of religious beliefs by men

evaluation of feminism

1. over focusing on gender, ignores class or race

2. feminism is not complex enough for postmodernists

3. overly negative, ignores positive impacts of religion

Bauman

Religion and choice

people have a choice on what they believe and how to behave

morality is privatised, people still want expert guidance on what tules to adopt so they look to religious leaders to help them

Lyon

Jesus in disneyland

people get a greater choice in a postmodern world including a greater choice of gods

de differentiation- a blurring of the boundaries and different social institutions

religious groups and other institutions are merging, e-church, people no longer need to physically go to their local churches to worship

religion and consumerism, harvest day parade at disneyland

Hervieu-Leger

spiritual shopping & individualisation

religious marketplace, people can pick and mix their religious identities

there is a loss of collective memory on the importance and traditions related to organised religion

people construct their own unique programmed of religious beliefs tend and practices rather than it being imposed in them

Burton

remixed religion

religion is a mixing and matching of religious practice

the rise of capitalism and the advent of the internet has made religion individual and more personalised

examples of remixed religion:

fan culture, wellness industry, witchcraft

evaluation of postmodernism

1. exaggerating choice, some people cant make choices about religion e.g conversion in saudi arabia is punishable by death

2. are we in a postmodern society, metanarrivtives are still used in our society

3. Bruce- exaggerates individualisation

4. ignores social structure, class, race, gender

protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism causes

the growth of capitalism is linked to a specific type of protestant christianity, Calvinism, they believes they were chosen by god and they were born to go heaven, there are limited people who go heaven

salvation anxiety was caused by people who were uncertain of their future fate

protestant ethic and spirit of capitalism outcomes

people behaved virtuously to convince themselves they were already one of the ones chosen to go heaven

ascetic life style characterised by abstaining from pleasure and being devoted to work

they wouldnt spend money but instead invest it into their businesses

this all created the right work ethic and behaviour for its followers to create capitalism

weber 4 types of religion

ascetic- abstaining from pleasure and actively pursuing goodness

mystical- passive and accepting if the world

inner worldly- engaged with our society

other worldly- disengaged from our society

other worldly mysticism- buddhism

inner worldly mysticism- taoism

other worldly asceticism- roman catholic monks

inner worldly asceticism- calvinism

weber theodicy of disprivilege

religion has the capacity to maintain society as it is

religion gives an explanation and justification for their suffering, the justification is that salvation may be granted as a reward for earthly poverty

evaluation of weberianism

1. he argues its both a radical force and a conservative force, contradicting himself

2. he doesnt say if religion is positive or negative

3. he doesnt say about the root cause of religion

Berger rumour of angels

there are signs of religion in everyday things e.g

when a parent comforts their child saying everything is alright it implies that the universe is trustworthy

when people experience an absolute evil and the perpetrators seem to get away with it people decide there is a supernatural realm where things will be put right, even non religious people for justice

finitude, people ask questions like “why am i here” and “why must i die” all these questions are asked by religion

Berger heretical imperative

whatever we choose we challenge someone else's beliefs due to how specific religion is now e.g catholic vs protestant

everyone is now a heretic since everyone believes in different things

Smart 7 dimensions

1. practical & ritual dimension, religious adherents engage in practices or rituals such as religious worship

2. experimental & emotional dimension, all the personal experiences that occur within religious traditions

3. narrative & mythic dimension, religious people share stories that shape their lives e.g jesus

4. doctrinal & philosophical dimension, religious people share beliefs about life and the world

5. ethical & legal dimension, members of religions seek to abide by rules that shape their lives and behaviours e.g 10 commandments

6. material dimension, physical objects or buildings e.g mosques

7. social & institutional dimension, religion traditions develop a persons social life

Eliade origin myths and the importance of rituals

religion gives us a connection to a more religious past making the present feel more sacred

meant religions desire to go back to this ancient world that was more sacred

jewish passover, recounts past adventures, makes the present (profane) feel more like the sacred time

this can make the profane contemporary time seem more sacred

evaluation of phenomenology

1. lacks objectivity

2. ignored social structure, ignores social class gender race

3. ignores the collective meaning of religion, too individual

is religion a radical force or a conservative force

For:

functionalism (durkeim, parsons, malinowski)

marxism

feminism (de beauvoir, daly)

Against:

neo marxism (gramsci, maduro, mcguire)

weberianism

patterns and trends gender

Sullins- women more religious than men in a study of over 65 different countries

1. Glock & Stark- relative deprivation, women seek comfort through a belief system that offers them solace and redemption, acts as a compensator for womens exploitation, social deprivation (lack of social power), organismic deprivation (women more likely to be ill), ethical deprivation (women more likely to see the world as in moral decline)

2. Miller & Hoffman- different socialisation, because of the characteristics women are brought up with (obedient, submissive) they are an ideal follower of religion

3. Miller & Hoffman- risk behaviour, men take more risks so they are less likely to be religious since they will take the risk of not going heaven

patterns and trends gender against

1. muslim men are more religious, around the world men in judiasm and islam are more religious than women

2. Pew Research Center- out of 63 countries both genders equally likely to in heaven in 47 countries

3. religion is different for everyone and varies from person to person so how could they measure based on whole social groups

patterns and trends ethnicity

2021 census:

86% asian, 85% black, 50% white

1. Weber- theodicy of disprivillege, provides explication for why they are disadvantaged

2. John Bird- they bring high religiosity from their country of origin, family pressure, social solidarity

3. Modood, Beishan & Virdee: for African Caribbean religion is used as a mean of coping for Asian groups it is seen as duty or routine

patterns and trends ethnicity against

1. Voas & Crockett- intergenerational divide, younger ethnic minority children are not getting religion passed down to them

2. religion is a temporary role for those who are coping in a new culture, religion wont be necessary in the future, religion is used as cultural defence and cultural transition

3. religion is different for everyone

patterns and trends age

2021 census- no religion had average age of 32, religious had average age of 40

1. national opinion research centre- cohort effect, many countries used to be very religious than they are now so people born earlier would have been socialised to be religious

2. national opinions research centre- awareness of mortality, as people get closer to death they may become more religious to cope with the fact they are dying

3. Coleman- older people lose more and more of their loved ones as they grow older so religion can have a positive effect on their grief. It provides a positive perspective on loss and gives reassurance that those who are dead might be in heaven

patterns and trends age against

1. 2021 census found that Muslim has the youngest average age of 27 years

2. Young people tend to be drawn to world rejecting religious movements such as the Moonies were they able to drop out of society and experiment with religion

3. religion is different for everyone

patterns and trends class

religious practice middle class, religious belief working class, yougov found 60% of church goers middle class, 40% middle class

Middle class:

1. Stark & Bainbridge- the wealthy of person is in the society the more likely they're gonna want to be part of a religion that is a world accepting since they would like to keep society as is rather than changing it

2. Stark & Bainbridge- the people who are in high classes see themselves as spiritually deprived so they seek fulfilment through a religion to alleviate the feeling of relative spiritual deprivation

3. Steve Bruce- new age norms and values about self development and individualism that mostly appeals to successful highly educated middle class individuals

Working class:

1. Weber- theodicy of disprivilege

2. marx- opium of masses

3. neo marx- otto maduro

patterns in a global context

1. Pew research center- All major religious groups are expected to increase by 2050. Religion has been growing Christianity and Islam represent 48% of the global population.

2. world religious database- the global north is becoming more religiously diverse while religious diversity is decreasing in the global south

3. world religious database- in Africa Middle East 8 out of 10 people say they are religious in eastern Europe and America 7 out of 10 say they are religious in Asia 6 out of 10 say they are religious

4. In some society, such as Western Europe, there’s evidence of a decline in the power and influence of traditional religions such as ChristianityIn some society such as Western Europe there's evidence of a decline in the power and influence of traditional religions such as Christianity however there is still belief

5. there is a resurgence of religion as spirituality in many places such as Western Europe this can be seen with post-modernism such as spiritual shoppers

measuring belief

using survey data e.g census, 46% christian, 37% athiest

british religion in numbers- belief in different things like angels or god

pros:

1. establish patterns and trends

2. validity- if a person believes in god they are religious

cons:

1. complicated and subjective

2. social desirability bias

measuring religiosity

7 dimension model

pros:

1. validity- multidimensional, looks at different areas

2. validity- allows for the changing nature of religion

cons:

1. too complex to have good operationalisation

2. social desirability bias

measure belief without belonging

Grace Davie- she basically says that cause everything is in a box if someone doesnt fit into that box of christianity they have the belief but dont belong cause they arent a part of christianity

pros:

1. explains why religion still exists despite secularisation

2. allows sociologists to understand privatised and individual religion

cons:

1. difficult to measure

2. social desirability

measuring vicarious religion

religion is practiced on behalf of someone e.g church leaders performing rituals on behalf of others

pros:

1. explains why religion seems to be secularising

2. allows sociologists to explain the changing role of religion

cons:

1. how can u measure it?

2. do people appreciate vicarious religion

secularisation

For secularisation:

1. belief- “i dont believe in god” 10% 1998 18% 2008 26% 2018

2. practice- religious marriages 67% 1966 24% 2016

3. power of religion- decreased influence on policy e.g abortion

4. theory- marx, fall of religion after communism

Against secularisation:

1. belief- icl i give up

social policy for

Human Rights act 1998- freedom to change your religion, right to have no religion, right not to be forced into a particular religion

Equality act- you cant be discriminated because: you are (or not) of a particular religion, you hold (or dont) particular philosophical beliefs, someone thinks you are of a particular religion

National curriculum- religious education is a legal requirement for every student to learn, 1/3 of schools in the uk are faith schools 68% being church of england

social policy against

“prevent” agenda- in schools teachers receive training on identifying potential risks in students that could show early warning signs of radicalism

Paul Weller- muslims appear to experience more serious religious discrimination with a higher frequency, a case where a girl lost her high court case against her school who banned prayer rituals

European Union Agency for Fundamental rights- ¼ of jews felt offended or threatened in the last year, ¼ heard other jews being attacked