unit 6 psych vocab

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 24, 486)

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 489)

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 489)

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 489)

teratogens

(literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 490)

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 271, 491)

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 494)

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 498)

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 498)

accommodation

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. (2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 177, 498)

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 499)

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 499)

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 500)

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 501)

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 501)

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 501)

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 502)

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 502)

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 503)

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 509)

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 510)

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 510)

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 511)

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 511)

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 511)

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, "Who am I?" (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 515, 592)

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 520)

gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 520)

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 521, 801)

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 521)

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 525)

gender identity

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 525)

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 525)

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 526)

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 526)

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 533)

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 533)

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 539)

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 539)

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 542)

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 546)

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 546)

spermarche

the first ejaculation. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 546)

menarche

the first menstrual period. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 546)

intersex

a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 547)

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 547)

sexual orientation

our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual orientation). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 549)

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 558)

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 563, 640)

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 563, 640)

neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 563)

Alzheimer's disease

a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 563)

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 14)

stability vs. change

the developmental psychology discussion about whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span.

continuity vs. stages

here are two major theories about how people develop. On one hand, the continuity theory says that development is a gradual, continuous process. On the other hand, the discontinuity theory says that development occurs in a series of distinct stages.

Rooting Reflex

an automatic response seen in newborn babies, who turn their face towards the stimulus and make sucking motions with the mouth when the cheek or lip is touched.

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 640)

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 640)

reversibility

preoperational inability to work backwards or see relationships as two-way

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

Grammar

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

Telegraphic stage

early speech stage in which a child speaks using mostly nouns and verbs. Like "go car".

Overgeneralization

applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; etc.)

Cooing stage

a stage of early language development that typically occurs between 6 to 8 weeks of age, characterized by the production of soft vowel-like sounds

Babbling Stage

The first stage of language development in which children spontaneously utter different sounds. This stage typically begins at about 3-4 months of age. The sounds children make during this stage do not include only the phonemes of the language that they hear.

One-word stage

Stage beginning around 1-2 years of age when children convey complete thoughts using single words.

Ecological Systems Theory

a theoretical framework that emphasizes the influence of various environmental systems on an individual's development. It suggests that human development is shaped by interactions with different levels of social environments.

Microsystems

the immediate environment in which an individual directly interacts with (e.g., family, school).

Mesosystem

the connections between different microsystems in an individual's life (e.g., how school experiences may impact family dynamics).

Exosystem

encompasses external settings that indirectly influence an individual's development (e.g., parents' work environment or neighborhood resources).

Macrosystem

the larger cultural or societal context that influences an individual's development and behavior.

Chronosystem

concept in ecological systems theory that refers to the dimension of time as it relates to an individual's development. It encompasses the changes and transitions that occur over time, affecting the individual and their environment, including life events, sociohistorical contexts, and shifts in family dynamics.

Authoritarian (Parenting Style)

This refers to a parenting approach that is characterized by high levels of control, strict rules, and little warmth or responsiveness. Often expect obedience without question.

Authoritative (Parenting Style)

a parenting approach that is characterized by high levels of warmth, responsiveness, and support combined with reasonable expectations for behavior. Parents who adopt this style are both nurturing and firm, providing structure while also allowing their children to have independence and autonomy.

Permissive (Parenting Style)

This refers to a parenting approach that is characterized by low levels of control and high levels of warmth. Parents tend to set few rules or boundaries for their children.

Avoidant Attachment (Insecure)

Infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

Anxious Attachment (Insecure)

Infants become extremely upset/distressed when their caregiver leaves but reject the caregiver when he or she returns

Disorganized Attachment (Insecure)

Infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure (Rocking,/Hitting, Crying) and return (acting strangely

Separation Anxiety

distress experienced by individuals (typically infants or young children) when separated from their primary caregivers.

Parallel Play

This term refers to a type of play where children play alongside each other without actively engaging or interacting with one another.

Pretend Play

also known as imaginative play or make-believe, is a type of play where children use their imagination to create scenarios and act out different roles and events.

Imaginary Audience

a psychological concept that refers to the belief during adolescence that others are constantly observing and judging one's appearance, behavior, and actions, even when they actually aren't.

personal fable

A cognitive distortion where adolescents believe they are unique and invincible, leading them to engage in risky behaviors.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infancy (0-1 years)

If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust.

Autonomy vs. Doubt

Toddlerhood (1-3 years)

Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.

Initiative vs. Guilt

(3-6 years)

Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Elementary School (6 years-Puberty)

Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to task, or they feel inferior.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence (teen years-20s)

Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young Adulthood (20s-early 40s)

Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle Adulthood (40s-60s)