Social Psychology & Personality

15-25% of the AP Exam

Attribution theory

How we attribute or explain the cause of our own behavior and the behavior of others.

Dispositional attribution

The tendency to attribute a person's behavior to their internal characteristics, such as their personality traits, attitudes, or abilities

Situational attribution

The tendency to attribute a person’s behavior to external factors, such as the situation or environment.

Explanatory style(s)

1. Optimistic: positive; brighter outlook on life

2. Pessimistic: negative outlook on life

Fundamental Attribution Error

Human tendencies to explain someone's behavior based on internal factors (personality/dispositional), and underestimate the possibilities of any situational, or external factors

Actor-Observer Bias (others v. ourselves)

A cognitive bias where humans tend to attribute their own actions to external or situational factors, while attributing others’ actions to internal characteristics or personality traits in order to excuse/feel better about our mistakes.

Self-Serving Bias (judging ourselves)

• A cognitive bias that explains our behavior depending on whether the outcome of our behavior is positive or negative.

• Individuals will attribute their success to internal factors like talent or effort, while blaming their failures on external factors like luck, others, environment.

• This bias serves to maintain self-esteem and protect one's ego.

Social Comparison

Comparing yourself to others to evaluate your abilities, opinions, and overall self-worth:

1. Upward Comparison: Comparing yourself to someone who you perceive as superior to you. This can inspire someone to improve their quality of life or create a sense of inferior complex.

2. Downward Comparison: Comparing yourself to someone who you perceive as less fortunate or inferior than you in order to feel better about yourself.

Attitude

Feelings often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Factors:

1. Experience

2. Social roles & norms

3. Classical & operant conditioning

4. Observing others

Mere-Exposure Effect

The phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. This effect suggests that repeated exposure to a stimulus increases our liking for it.

Peripheral Route Persuasion (ethos/pathos)

A method of persuasion that relies on superficial cues rather than the content of the message, often influencing attitudes through emotional appeal or attractiveness. This approach focuses on factors such as endorsements, visual, and emotional appeals.

• Lacks depth and logic

• Surface level information

• Uses positive association

• Attitude change is weak and short-lived

• Requires little conscious effort

Central Route Persuasion (logos)

Offers evidence and arguments that aim to trigger favorable thoughts.

• Long-lasting attitude change

• Audience must be motivated to listen

• Uses logic and facts to convince people to change their attitudes or behaviors

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

People who agreed to smaller requests are more likely to comply later with a larger request based on the idea of maintaining consistency in their behavior.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Where a person makes a large request that is likely to be rejected, but follows up with a smaller, and more reasonable request that’s more likely to be agreed upon.

Role

A set of expectations/norms about a social positioning defining how those in position must behave.

Belief Perseverance

Maintaining a belief even when presented information that refute against your beliefs or opinions.

Confirmation Bias

Search, interpret, or recall information that supports/confirms one’s beliefs or opinions.

Cognitive Dissonance

A nagging feeling of discomfort feeling when your beliefs and actions don't quite line up.

• Conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes

• Discomfort feeling comes from inconsistency/contradictions

• Attempt to relieve discomfort by rejecting, explaining away, or avoiding new information

Prejudice

Unjustifiable and negative behavior or attitude towards a specific group.

Explicit Attitude (directly)

Aware of the negative/harmful attitude and behavior towards the specific group.

Implicit Attitude (indirectly)

Unconscious belief or attitude towards a group or individual.

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that the world is “just” and people will get what they deserve → karma

Good people will be rewarded

Bad people will be punished

Out-group Homogeneity

The tendency to assume that the members of other groups are very similar to each other, while your group are all individually different from one another.

Ex:

1. A white person might think that all Asian people are similar to each other. 

2. A basketball player might think that all cheerleaders are the same, but that the people on their team are all different.

In-group Bias

A cognitive bias that causes people to favor their own group over other groups. The tendency to favor someone whom we can relate to share a common trait or interest with.

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. Conforms; agrees with others’ opinions because they feel the need to belong and to feel accepted.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinion about reality. Conforms to gain knowledge or because they think that person knows better, therefore, they are right, and they should obey.

Factors of Conformity

1. Appealing to societal standards; fear rejection & being different

2. Blending in with the majority

3. Feels incompetent or insecure

4. Peer pressure

5. Being observed

6. Admire the group’s status and attractiveness

7. No prior commitment/collaboration

Obedience

Complying to direct orders from an authority figure.

Factors:

• The authority figure was present in the room with the subject.

• Prestigious institution

• Authority holds high status

• No one else is disobeying

• Intimidation/fear tactics; avoid consequences

• No sense of self-responsibility; assigning responsibility to the authority

Social Facilitation

Strengthened performance in other’s presence; do well when people are watching.

Social Inhibition

Performance worsens in other’s presence.

Social Loafing

When in a group setting, your performance effort decreases due to not holding your actions accountable; decreased self-responsibility. Because you’re in a group setting, you believe that you do not have a lot of impact, and slack off.

Loaf —> cat loafing (loaf bread position = chill)

Deindividuation

Losing one’s self-identity, individuality, self-awareness, and self-restraint when participating in a group. It can lead to people acting in ways they might not otherwise, such as engaging in impulsive, deviant, or violent behavior. 

Ex:

1. Anonymity: Feel less accountable for their actions because they’re unidentifiable and can get away with it

2. Group size: “Everyone else is doing it, so I can do it too.”, “The crowd is too big, I won’t get caught.”

Group Polarization

The belief and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-minded others. Occurs when like-minded people reinforce each other’s opinions and they become/grow more extreme as they’re discussed.

Us v. Them mentality; isolate group from “outsiders" (those with opposing opinions and beliefs)

Ex:

1. Political discussions

2. Extremist groups

3. Terrorist organizations

4. Cults

Groupthink

Fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification, and group polarization. It is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a group of people make irrational decisions due to a desire for harmony or conformity.

• Lack of critical thinking

• Poor decision making by dismissing/suppressing differing opinions and not exploring alternative solutions

• Lack of perspective

• Ignore warning signs & doesn’t reconsider beliefs

Altruism

Selfless, prosocial behavior.

Bystander Effect

A social psychological theory that describes how an individual is less likely to intervene in a conflict when there are multiple witnesses/bystanders present.

Social Exchange Theory

A sociological and psychological theory that explains how people make decisions based on the costs and benefits of their actions and relationships.

Ex: “If I help them, what will I gain from it? Will it benefit me? What will I get in return?”

Social Reciprocity Norm

Repaying what another has provided - mutual benefits and cooperation.

Ex: Treat people how they treated you

Social Responsibility Norm

A belief that people have a moral obligation to help others, even if they are not directly benefiting from it; no personal gains. Act in ways that benefit others and contribute to the community.

Conflict

A state of opposing forces, such as desires, emotions, or behaviors. It can occur between individuals, groups, or within an individual.

Social Traps

A conflict of interest or perverse incentive where individuals or a group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole.

Self-fulfillment

• A prediction that becomes true because someone believes it will.

• A person's belief or expectation influences their actions

• Expectation leads to fulfillment

Peace

Attained through the following:

1. Contact: Involve equal status between individuals and a shared goal requiring cooperation.

2. Cooperation: With people towards a shared goal – superordinate goals; Overcoming differences in order to achieve a shared goal.

3. Communication: Promote understanding, and foster peaceful relationships between individuals and groups.

4. Conciliation: Facilitating communication and reaching an agreement between conflicting parties, often through the involvement of a neutral third party, with the goal of resolving conflict peacefully, and promoting reconciliation.

Personality

Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Psychodynamic theorists view personalities

Conscious

The state of being aware of your thoughts, desires, feelings, memories, and surroundings.

Unconscious

Unaware thoughts, desires, feelings, and memories.

Information processing of which we are unaware of.

Subconscious (preconscious)

Thoughts, feelings, and impulses that are not presently in awareness, but can be readily called into consciousness.

Id

The unconscious source for all innate needs, emotional impulses, and desires.

Pleasure over pain and reality

Referred to as “the shoulder devil”

Ego

Mediates the demands of the Id, superego, and reality.

Focuses on reality

Superego

Criticizes and prohibits the expression of drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.

Referred to as “the shoulder angel”

Critical self-conscious and judgement

Self-Actualizing Tendency

Realizing one’s full potential by pursuing personal growth and self-fulfillment; the ability to become the best version of yourself.

Unconditional Positive Regard

An attitude of total acceptance toward another person; accepting a person for who they are despite their flaws/faults.

Self Concept

All our thoughts and feelings or answers center around the question of “who am I?”; our perception of ourselves.

Reciprocal Determinism

Behavior + internal personal + environmental influence = our interaction.

Ex: Ms. Shughoury is social & caring (a personal factor). Because of this, she chooses to become a high school teacher (behavioral factor). Because of her choice to be a high school teacher, she is in an environment of teaching, mentoring, talking, learning, and acting professional (environmental factors). Because she is talkative and excited, her students tend to be talkative and excited which reinforces her social personality.

Self-Efficacy

An individual’s belief in their capacity to execute tasks; one’s belief in their ability to accomplish (succeed/achieve) a task or goal.

Self-Esteem

How we value and perceive ourselves; our self-worth.

Traits

Internal characteristics that make up our personality and influence how we behave.

Openness

• Independent

• Willing to try new things; adventurous

• Variety = good

• New experience

Conscientiousness

• Organized

• Careful; meticulous

• Disciplined

Extraversion

• Sociable

• Prefers interactions and big group settings

• “Peoples person” - outgoing and enjoys talking to others

Agreeableness

• Mediator

• Prioritizes peace and harmony

• Cooperative

Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)

One’s ability to regulate their emotions.

Motivation

One of the driving forces behind human behavior; what drives people to act in certain ways.

Drive-Reduction Theory

The more one gets rewarded, the less interested a person becomes in a task.

Ex: You enjoy drawing → you get stickers and praises for every time you draw well → you’re expected to draw well → Perfectionism drains the joy out of drawing

Drive

Motivation to satisfy the need.

Homeostasis

The human body seeking stability and balance.

Arousal Theory

Motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The higher the arousal → the more productive.

The lower the arousal → the less productive.

High-demanding stimulus increases attention and interest which can improve performance to an extent.

Too little arousal doesn't provide much in the way of motivation.

Too much arousal causes a stronger stress reaction that can hamper performance.

Ex: Listening to music while studying helps others.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

Crave new, intense, and complex experiences, even if they're dangerous to maintain, or achieve optimal levels of arousal.

• Experience seeking - new sensation + experience.

• Thrill Seeking - adrenaline rush.

• Disinhibition - freedom from restrictive, conventional rules.

• Boredom Susceptibility - restless when not stimulated.

Self-Determination Theory

• Intrinsic Motivation: Internal factor.

  - Relatedness: build connections.

  - Competency: learning new things, awareness, new perspective.

  - Autonomy: feel in control.

• Extrinsic Motivation: External factor.

  - Reward/money

  - Social approval

  - Grades

Social Trap

Pursuit short-term gains that negatively affects the group with long-term consequences that are harmful to the group → causes conflict.

When individuals act in their own self-interest, disregarding the group.

Lewin’s Types of Conflict

• Approach-approach: when a person chooses between 2 equally desirable options, creating a positive dilemma where both options seem appealing.

• Avoidance-avoidance: when a person chooses between 2 undesirable options, creating a difficult situation where none of the options are appealing.

• Approach-avoidance: Options have both positive and negative aspects, making the decision complex because the person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal.

Ghrelin

Hormone that stimulates hunger and increases appetite.

"Hungry gremlin”

Leptin

Hormone that suppresses appetite and signals satiety (satisfied/feeling full) to regulate the body’s weight.

Pituitary Gland

Produces and releases hormones that regulate many bodily functions:

• metabolism

• reproduction

• body growth

• body temperature

• blood pressure

• etc.

Hypothalamus

Lateral: Controls feeding, energy, balance, and motivated behaviors.

Ventromedial: Responsible for appetite suppression and regulating body temperature.

Stomach Contractions Theory:

Our stomach contracts when we’re hungry.

Glucose Theory

Our appetite increases when our blood glucose increases and decreases when our blood glucose decreases.

Set Point Theory

The ventromedial and lateral hypothalamus interact to maintain a set point of body weight, feed intake, or related to metabolic signals.

Our body tries to maintain a specific default weight that our brain has predetermined by regulating our hunger and metabolism.

Sexual Hormones

Regulates arousal and desire.

Human Sexual Response Cycle

1. Desire

2. Arousal

3. Orgasm

4. Resolution

Sexual Dysfunctions

Difficulties with sexual arousal due to low desire on a physiological aspect.

Paraphilias

Intense sexual arousal from atypical situations, objects, fantasies, behaviors, individuals, or places.

freak

Emotions

Complex mental reactions that can be experienced as strong feelings → shown through facial expressions and body language.

Different elements of emotions:

• Physiological arousal - bodily changes

• Subjective feelings - personal experience

• Cognitive appraisal - interpretation of the situation

• Behavioral expression - observable actions

Universally recognized emotions:

• Sadness

• Joy

• Fear

• Disgust

• Anger

• Surprise

Display Rule

How people display their emotions based on their cultural norms, etiquette, and social expectations.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

Positive emotions broaden an individual’s momentary (thought-action supply).

- Makes the world seem more “open”

- Broadens cognition and awareness

- Negative emotions narrow down one’s focus

Facial Feedback Effect

The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings.

- Experiments have also demonstrated that Botox injections, which paralyze facial muscles, can reduce the intensity of emotions.

- This suggests that facial expressions can play a role in shaping our emotional experiences.

Ex: Smiling can induce feelings of happiness, while frowning may lead to feelings of sadness or displeasure.

Behavior Feedback Effect

The tendency of behavior to influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Ex:

• Standing tall with good posture can often make you feel more confident while slouching can make you feel less confident. 

• Speaking in a cheerful voice can positively influence your mood while speaking in a monotone can make you feel more down.

• Talking to yourself with positive affirmations can enhance your motivation and self-esteem. 

Projective Tests

• Thematic Apperception Tests: Allows people to express their inner feelings and interests by describing/interpreting pictures.

• Rorschach Inkblots: Interpreting blot pictures to analyze and identify people’s inner thoughts and feelings.

Locus of Control

How much individuals believe they control their lives.

Incentive Theory

Explains how people are motivated by external rewards and avoid negative outcomes. People are motivated to work harder when their accomplishments are tied to rewards.