Causes of the First World War: short- and long-term causes; relative importance of causes; the Alliance system; the decline of the Ottoman Empire; German foreign policy; Austria-Hungary, Russia and Balkan nationalism; the arms race and diplomatic crises; the July Crisis of 1914

imperialism p1

• Imperialism and imperial rivalry provided both a cause and context for World War I

• Imperialism was driven by economic benefits, military interests and overall prestige

• Generated rivalries and stimulated the rise of nationalism

• Germany’s desire for an empire in accordance with Weltpolitik, caused conflict with established colonial powers

• The British Empire

  • Was the world’s largest, richest and most dominant imperial power

  • Controlled 20% of the world’s territory by 1900 and ruled the trading system with the East India Trading Company India, South Africa, Australia and parts of North Africa among others

• France

  • A significant imperial power was the French

  • Held Indochina, some Pacific island and several colonies in Africa

• Russia

  • Ruled many countries in Eastern Europe and had colonial interests in East Asia

  • Was the most powerful Slavic nation and was promoted as the defender of the Slavics

  • Thus, it defended Serbia and wanted to increase its influence in the Balkans for prestige and power

• Germany

  • Unified in 1871, however Bismarck was not interested in colonies

  • When Kaiser Wilhelm II came into power, he colonised 995,000 km2 of land, which became known as German East Africa in 1891

  • His foreign policy, Weltpolitik, meant that Germany would attempt to extend its influence in the world via the acquisition of colonies and a large navy

  • This threatened British and French imperial interests

imperialism p2

• The Scramble for Africa began during the 19th century as the European nations wanted colonies to secure sources of raw materials such as cotton, copper, iron, rubber, gold and diamonds, all of which were used to fuel their growing industrial economies

• Impact of the Scramble for Africa

  • The French, Italians, British and Germans all increased their power and influence among other European nations

  • Caused competition for colonies in Africa between various European countries, thus fuelling rivalries o Created tensions as countries wanted economical gains and international prestige with an expanded empire

  • The Moroccan Crisis (1905) and the Agadir Crisis (1911) 63

    • Morocco, situated in North Africa, was considered primarily a French sphere of interest

    • When France attempted to establish more control over Morocco in 1905, Germany objected, claiming that it had to be consulted, as per Weltpolitik

    • When France ignored German demands, the German military threatened to attack France if its foreign minister was not replaced and if France refused to attend an international conference to resolve the matter

    • France complied and during the Algericas Conference held in Spain in 1906, Britain firmly supported its entente partner, forcing Germany to agree to allow France to extend further control over Morocco under certain minor conditions

    • The British were infuriated by the fact that the Kaiser wanted to undermine British friendship with France in the Moroccan Crisis of 1905

    • In 1911, the Agadir Crisis occurred as France sent troops to Morocco, causing Germany to proclaim the right to do the same in Southern Morocco

    • Again, Britain and France resisted German moves and demands, forcing Germany to accept 275,000 km2 of French Congo instead

    • The German government felt that it had been defeated and humiliated

    • This in-turn severely fractured German-French relations

alliances p1

• An alliance is a formal political, military or economic agreement between two or more nations

• Military alliances usually contain promises that in the event of war or aggression, one signatory nation will support the others

• During the 19th and early 20th centuries European nations formed, annulled and restructured alliances on a regular basis

• By 1914, the Great Powers of Europe had shuffled themselves into two alliance blocs

• The existence of these two opposing blocs meant that war between two nations might mean war between them all

• The impact of the alliance system as a cause of war is often overstated

• Alliances did not, as is often suggested, make war inevitable

• Alliances did not disempower governments or lead to automatic declarations of war; the authority and final decision to mobilise or declare war still rested with national leaders

• It was their moral commitment to these alliances that was the telling factor.

alliances p2

• Three Emperors League

  • This league was a three way alliance between the ruling monarchs of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia

  • The Three Emperors’ League was engineered and dominated by the Prussian statesman Otto von Bismarck, who saw it as a means of securing the balance of power in Europe

  • Disorder in the Balkans undermined Russia’s commitment to the league, which collapsed in 1878

  • The Three Emperors’ League, without Russia, formed the basis of the Triple Alliance

• The Dual Alliance (1879) 64

  • This was a binding military alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, that required each signatory to support the other if one was attacked by Russia

  • It was signed after the collapse of the Three Emperors’ League and during a period of Austro-Russian tension in the Balkans

  • The alliance was welcomed by nationalists in Germany, who believed that German-speaking Austria should be absorbed into greater Germany

• The Triple Alliance (1882)

  • This complex three way alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was driven by anti-French and anti-Russian sentiment

  • Each of the three signatories was committed to provide military support to the others, if one was attacked by two other powers – or if Germany and Italy were attacked by France

  • Italy, being newly formed and militarily weak, was viewed as a minor partner in this alliance

• The Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)

  • This military alliance between France and Russia restored cordial relations between the two imperial powers

  • The Franco-Russian Alliance was in effect a response to the Triple Alliance, which had isolated France

  • The signing of the Franco-Russian Alliance was an unexpected development that thwarted German plans for mainland Europe and angered Berlin

  • It also provided economic benefits to both signatory nations, allowing Russia access to French loans and providing French capitalists with access to Russian mining, industry and raw materials

• The Entente Cordiale (1904)

  • Meaning ‘friendly agreement’, the Entente Cordiale was a series of agreements between Britain and France

  • The Entente ended a century of hostility between the two cross-channel neighbours

  • It also resolved some colonial disagreements and other minor but lingering disputes

  • The Entente was not a military alliance; neither signatory was obliged to provide military support for the other

  • Nevertheless, it was seen as the first step towards an Anglo-French military alliance.

• The Anglo-Russian Entente (1907)

  • This agreement between Britain and Russia eased tensions and restored good relations between the two nations

  • Britain and Russia had spent much of the 19th century as antagonists, going to war in the Crimea (1853-56) and later reaching the verge of war twice

  • The Anglo-Russian Entente resolved several points of disagreement, including the status of colonial possessions in the Middle East and Asia o It did not involve any military commitment or support.

• The Triple Entente (1907)

  • This treaty consolidated the Entente Cordiale and the AngloRussian Entente into a three-way agreement between Britain, France and Russia

  • Again, it was not a military alliance – however the three Ententes of 1904-7 were important because they marked the end of British neutrality and isolationism.

militarism

• Militarism is a philosophy or system that places great importance on military power

• Militarism was a significant force in several European nations in the years prior to World War I

• Militarism alone did not start World War I – that first required a flashpoint and a political crisis – but it created an environment where war, rather than negotiation or diplomacy, was considered the best way of resolving international disputes

• Soldiers

  • There was an increase in defence expenditure in all major European powers especially after 1905, when a World War was looming

  • Between 1870 and 1914, military spending by European powers increased by 300% and conscription was adopted by all continental powers

  • By 1914, more than 12 million men could be called upon in the event of war

  • Substantial investment in increasing troop numbers in standing army

  • Triple Entente had a major advantage as it outnumbered the combined troops of the Dual Alliance by 1.5 million

  • Rate of increase standing armies of Entente nations were higher than Axis nations o Number of troops in standing army in 1914

    • Britain: 700,000

    • France: 1.1 million

    • Russia: 1.3 million

    • Germany: 800,000

    • Austria-Hungary: 800,000

• Naval Arms Race o Decade before 1914, Germany aimed to build a navy which can challenge British naval supremacy

  • Britain seeks to retain their lead in naval supremacy and in 1906, launch a new class of battleships known as the HMS Dreadnought

  • This was a new standard of the modern battleship as it was fitted with large guns capable of destroying enemies from large distances

  • In 1908, Germany launched their own Dreadnoughts and thus began the naval arms race

  • By 1914, Britain had 29 Dreadnoughts and Germany had 17

nationalism p1

• Nationalism is an intense form of patriotism in which individuals with nationalistic tendencies celebrated the culture and achievements of their own country and placed its interests above other nations • Nationalism gave citizens an inflated confidence in their nation, government and military strength

• It convinced them that their country was fair, righteous and without blame

• Nationalist ideas demonised rival nations, caricaturing them as aggressive, scheming, deceitful, backward or uncivilised

• It contributed to a continental delusion that suggested that a European war was both necessary and winnable

• German Nationalism

  • The Franco-Prussian War that went from 1870 to 1871, resulted in German victory and French embarrassment

  • The 39 Germanic states were unified under the rule of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and a new superpower was born

  • The French were forced to sign the Treaties of Versailles and Frankfurt in 1871, which asked them to pay an indemnity of 5 billion marks and had to give the iron-rich territory of Alscace-Lorraine

  • There was a Prussian victory march through the streets of Paris, which added further humiliation to the French as the King of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in the Palace of Versailles, which marked the beginning of an era of German unification

  • This increased German pride and resulted in nationalistic feelings among the Germanic people

  • Political and socio-economic problems followed the defeat in France and a desire for revenge manifested among the people

  • Kaiser Wilhelm II coming into power in 1888 and his introduction of Weltpolitik catalysed the war, as the German people became fascinated with German imperial expansion in order to secure their ‘place in the sun’

  • Thus, it can be argued that nationalistic emotions reinforced the main rivalry of World War 1 between Germany and France

• British Nationalism

  • Fuelled by a century of comparative peace and prosperity, British nationalism was at an all-time high as they had control over the largest empire and naval army

  • England’s ‘penny press’ was a collective term for cheap serialised novels,

  • It fuelled foreign rivalries by publishing incredible fictions about foreign intrigues, espionage, future war and invasion

  • ‘Invasion literature’ was an example of propagating nationalism, as novels featured British soldiers overcoming the Germans and placing them at a much higher standard than the Russians and French, which increased nationalism

nationalism p2

• Balkan Nationalism

  • No nationalist movement had a greater impact on the outbreak of war than the Slavic groups in the Balkans

  • Pan-Slavism, was the belief that the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe should have their own nation, was a powerful force in the region

  • Sought to establish the principle of self-determination

  • Slavic nationalism was strongest in Serbia where it had risen significantly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

  • Austria Hungary wanted to extend its control in the region and thus annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 as it feared revolts from the Slavic people and attempted to quiet them down

  • Russia also wanted to increase its influence in the Balkans as it had an ideological commitment as it was the most powerful Slavic nation and thus promoted its image as the defender of all Slavic people

  • This increased Russian prestige and power and would limit the territorial expansion of its main rival, Austria-Hungary

  • The Ottomans had controlled the Balkans for centuries but in the late 19th and early 20th century, their power was in decline was colloquially known as ‘the sick man of Europe’

  • This created a power vacuum in the Balkans which left other superpowers such as Russia and Austria-Hungary to exploit it, while also increasing the confidence of the Slavic’s and other nationalities

  • The Italians launched an attack on Libya (part of the Ottoman Empire) in 1911 and defeated the Ottomans, which accentuated the weakness of the Empire to other countries and led to the Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913

  • The instability in the region led to the first Balkan War in October 1912 as Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria gained independence from the Ottomans and formed the Balkan League

  • The Serbs, Greeks, Montenegrins and Bulgarians were all a product of nationalism as they advocated for their independence through the policy of national self-determination

  • Supported by the Russian empire, the league attacked Turkey and gained land gained land, with Serbia doubling its land size, but not gaining Albania, which was an outlet to the sea (Serbia remained landlocked)

  • Austria-Hungary supported the Ottomans as they were rivals with both Russia and Serbia

  • The Second Balkan War broke out in June 1913 when Bulgaria attacked its former allies Serbia and Greece as it was dissatisfied with its share of the spoils from the First Balkan Wars

  • Bulgaria was quickly dispatched by Serbia and co. and further strengthened Serbia into a force that was to be reckoned with, as it increased its overall territory by 80% 68

  • Austria-Hungary, allied with Germany and the Ottomans, sought to establish influence in the Balkans which is why it was rivals with Serbia

  • The strength of Serbia led to an increase in patriotism and nationalism among the Serbs, which resulted in a nationalistic Serbian group known as the Black Hand to murder the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary

  • Already looking for a reason to go to conflict, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and due to their alliance systems, Germany came involved as well

  • Russia was then pressured into joining the war to support Serbia, and the other superpowers followed suit

  • It can be argued that the alliance systems was one of the major causes of First World War, but nations did not really have to abide by them, as exemplified by the fact that even though Italy was part of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, they joined the Allies

  • Thus, it can be stated that the superpowers simply wanted to avoid a war on their own front and did not want to deal with the damages and repercussions that would arise from that

the july crisis

• The July Crisis was a series of events in 1914 which ultimately led to the declarations of war by European Superpowers

• Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated by Serbian nationalists on 28 June, 1914

• The month-long period following the assassination became known as the ‘July Crisis’

• Flurry of meetings between Austro-Hungarian and German diplomats as they debated how to proceed and what might happen with regard to Russia if Austria declared war on Serbia

• On July 5, Kaiser Wilhelm II issued his famous ‘Blank Cheque’ to the AustroHungarians: they could proceed as they saw fit, and Germany would back them if Russia intervened

• The Kaiser believed Germany was more equipped and would be able to mobilise its forces much faster than Russia and France if they intervened and wanted to be able to crush their opponents before they had a chance to put up substantial resistance

• The Kaiser urged his Austrian allies to deal with Serbia promptly and ruthlessly

• On July 23, the Serbian government received an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary

• In it was a set of ten demands, plus a requirement for the Serbs to respond in agreement within 48 hours

• The term of the ultimatum was impossible to agree to and so Serbia immediately sought the counsel of the Russians

• Tsar Nicholas II and his ministers offered to publicly condemn the ultimatum, but they were also aware that Russia’s military readiness lagged behind Germany’s, so refused to offer any military guarantees

• The British foreign minister tried averting war by organising a mediation conference between all nations with a stake in the crisis, however this was rejected by both Germany and Austria.

• Serbia responded to the Austrian ultimatum just before the expiration of the deadline

• It submitted to most of the demands but rejected the Austrian-led inquiry demanded by point six, which it considered a breach of Serbian sovereignty

• Thus, Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Josef declared war on Serbia on July 28th

• Russia, a long-time protector of Serbia, responded by mobilising its forces against Austria-Hungary

• Germany’s rulers declared war on Russia on August 1 and lit the fuse for their muchanticipated Schlieffen Plan, a scheme to invade France

• On August 3, Germany declares war on France and invades Belgium as per the Schlieffen Plan

• On August 4, Britain declares war on Germany and World War I officially begins

• Germany’s invasion of neutral Belgium triggered Britain’s involvement, which in turn dragged British dominions – Australia, New Zealand, Canada, India and South Africa – to declare war on Germany

• Thus, the July Crisis and the failure of diplomacy was a direct short-term cause and was a catalyst the resulted in the outbreak of war