History of religion class

Abraham

The patriarch and first prophet of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, he began his journey by going to Canaan, which includes modern Israel. As the beginning of the Jewish people, his acts made up much of Genesis, and he is claimed as an ancestor by Judaism and Islam. It is unclear if Abraham truly existed, but the idea of him is deeply significant for three of the major world religions.

Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali

One of the most significant Sufi Muslims, al-Ghazzali left his original life as a theologian when he had a religious crisis. His time in isolation led him to Sufism, believing that each Muslim should have their own personal connection with God, and he wrote the book The Revival of the Religious Sciences professing this belief. Sufism led to a massive spread of Islam, but also represented a populist threat to Muslim authority.

Animism

The basic religious belief that everything in the universe, including plants, animals, and objects, have their own spirits.

Ali ibn Abi Talib

Shi'a Muslims followed Ali as the first Imam of Islam, which represented the Islamic schism from the majority Sunni Muslims, who followed the elected caliphate. Ali was Muhammed's cousin and son in law, and was followed as the closest relative to Muhammed fit to lead Islam. He eventually became the 4th caliph of Islam, but was assassinated, however the Shi'a numbering of Imams is still counted from his leadership as first.

Anyang Excavations

The Chinese excavations by Li Chi, beginning in the 1920s, which unearthed over two thousand oracle bones. Oracle bones were animal bones with statements written on them, which were then placed in the fire, and responses were read by diviners. The excavation unearthed a previously unknown major aspect of Chinese courtly religion.

Arius of Alexandria

A Bishop of the Roman Empire, he professed the belief that Jesus was a subordinate son to the eternal monarch, God. He and his sect was expelled from the Holy Roman Empire after his ideas lost at the Council of Nicaea. His controversy led to the first solid Christian orthodoxy.

Augurs

Ancient roman diviners who interpreted the will of the gods based on the flight of birds. They were consulted before any action the state took, and could overturn almost anything if it was inauspicious. As the tie between Roman religion and state, they were the most powerful figures of the Roman republic.

Bhakti

Open to anyone regardless of gender or class, it was basic popular religion adopted into Hinduism. Translating to devotion, it became an adherence to the path set for you, making your life a sacrifice. The Bhagavad Gita was a text of this sect, and it later sprouted a poetry movement.

Bodhisattva

Buddhists who attain enlightenment and are able to reach Nirvana and escape the cycle, but instead choose to stay on Earth and guide other people to enlightenment. As Buddha's goal is for everyone to be enlightened, and relieve all suffering, they delay their ascendance for that mission. Bodhisattvas were a central part of Mahayana Buddhism, contributing to the populism of the movement with infinite, compassionate Buddhas.

Caliphate

The Muslim state comprising the community in the decades after Muhammed's death, as well as the position of being leader. The leader was the figurehead of the Muslim community, ideally reflecting Muhammed. Although the Caliphate attempted to assert universal authority, Islam was very fragmented and pluralist, and the power grab led to contested leadership.

Chauvet Cave

This place in France has some of the oldest known cave paintings (older than Lascaux). Inside, there are many animal paintings, which are well preserved due to their depth in the cave. This place is considered some of the oldest known evidence of religion.

Coronation of Charlemagne

King Charlemagne of France had already conquered much of Western Europe, and Pope Leo III had little power, locked in competition with the Eastern Orthodox Church and Empress Irene, and hated by his people. On December 25, 800 CE, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne the king of the Roman empire, which set up the Holy Roman Empire, where Popes and monarchs ruled in tandem or opposition. The millennium the Holy Roman Empire ruled in the West facilitated many fractures, as well as much power for the Church.

Council of Nicaea

Christians didn't agree on what Jesus was; lesser than the eternal God and created by him (Arius), or coeternal with God as separate and not at the same time (Athanasius). Constantine invited all the Bishops of the Roman empire, of which 300 came, to Nicaea, where they debated hotly for two months. Athanasius's win produced the first Church orthodoxy, which still stands today, and was used to suppress other voices for over a millennium.

Deuteronomistic Reforms

These came in the 7th century BCE, when King Josiah's high priests renovated the temple in Jerusalem and "found" a "hidden text" - the Torah, or book of laws. After reading it, he executed a series of sweeping reforms, expelling all other Gods from the temple by having their priests executed, and decreeing that the only legitimate temple worship was in the Jerusalem temple. It violently centralized the religion and was the catalyst for rabbinic judaism; it is worth noting that the "hidden scroll" was likely written by the high priest himself.

Dharma

The Hindu principle of right action, specifically pertaining to the right action for each person's caste and role. It justifies the caste system as tied to Karma even today, pronouncing that one must follow their dharma or suffer in the next life. In Buddhism, it reflected the path of Buddha.

Earth Diver

The most universal myth of world origins, being found all over the Americas as well as in Eastern Europe. The myth tells of an earth, ruled by animals and covered in water, where the land is found by a humble animal. It is one of the only universal myths we have, and has been used to reconstruct contact and religious evolution.

Emperor Ashoka

The great Buddhist Emperor of India, he converted to Buddhism in his 8th year ruling after he won a bloody war. As a patron of the Sangha, he was angry at its corruption, and imposed orthodoxy through an inspector of the Dhamma and by forcing out heretical monks. He set up hundreds of inscribed pillars and sent missionaries all over, and the kingdom became Buddhist until his death fractured the empire.

Fatwa

Amateur legal opinions on Islamic law that were given by recognized educated people called Muftis. They could be given on any subject, religious or not religious, and asked for by anyone, including by Judges. They created increased populism in Islam, as anyone educated could become a Mufti.

Gobekli Tepe

Built 12,000 years before present day, it in Turkey is the first unambiguous purpose-built holy place. Although it is possible that other temples were created before this, it is made of massive, carved stones, ensuring it lasted until present day.

Hadith

A book of Muhammed's sayings, written down by followers of Muhammed, and used to interpret the Qur'an. Not all of the sayings are authentic to Muhammed, and a science of likelihood was constructed to understand its unlikelihoods and contradictions. Still, the Hadith was and continues to be instrumental to interpreting holy texts and Muhammed's life.

The Hero with a Thousand Faces

A book by Joseph Campbell, which extrapolated on and popularized Jung's theory that all myths reflect one universal monomyth, and connect to everyone because of basic mythological architecture. Campbell created a hero's journey: ordinary person -> called to adventure -> get supernatural aid -> achieve catharsis/atonement with a parental figure -> returns to life changed.

Hijra

The migration of Muhammed and Muslims from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. As a pivotal event in Muslim history, it precedes the first construction of an autonomous and unpersecuted Muslim community in Medina.

Indus Valley Civilization

This civilization was a proto-Aryan society believed to be the foundation of modern India, among other civilizations. Its religion likely was the base for the Hindu Gods, as a popular religion later swallowed by Hinduism. It also had its own written language and massive cities.

Investiture Controversy

This schism happened when the Pope removed the ability for local authorities to create Bishops, and in response, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV called for a new papal election. The Pope, Gregory VII excommunicated him, and Henry came crawling back to Gregory in the manner of a penitent. This set off 50 years of civil war between the Pope and Emperor, and set the stage for the Pope's authority to call the 1095 crusade.

Irenaeus

The Bishop who created the solution to the problem of authority by elevating the Bishop of Rome as religious descendants of St. Peter. As well as creating the Papacy, he declared the closure of Catholic Canon, decreeing only the 4 Canon gospels were valid. As the Papacy still exists, and the 4 Gospels are still honored as truth, it is safe to say that he shaped Christianity immutably.

Jewish Christians

A movement of early Christianity led by Christ's brother James which preached Jesus Christ to Jewish people. Jews were an exclusive group, and were eventually defeated ideologically as Paul's faction expanded beyond the enclaves. This movement was almost completely wiped out, but it had a great effect on the idea of a proselytizing religion.

King Josiah

The 16th King of Judah, ruling between 640-609 BCE, King Josiah headed/orchestrated the Deuteronomistic reforms from the 'found" Torah/book of Laws. He created sweeping, violent reforms across Judah, exiling or killing priests of all other Gods in the Jerusalem temple and banning all shrines and sacrifices outside the temple. By confining Priestly Judaism to the temple in Jerusalem, Josiah set the stage for the rise of Rabbinic Judaism.

Kaaba

A cube-shaped shrine in Mecca, currently the site of mandatory pilgrimage for all Muslims at least once in their lives (the Hajj). Originally a shrine where hundreds of Gods were worshipped, it became solely for Allah after Muhammed conquered Mecca.

Krishna

An avatar of Vishnu, and God of compassion and love as well as darkness, he comes up often in Indian mythology. He is a key figure in the the Mahabharata, where he drives Arjuna's chariot and counsels him. He is one of the major Hindu Gods, worshipped as his own figure as well as a part of Vishnu.

Lao-Tze

A likely fictitious religious figure who cultivated Dao and allegedly wrote the Daodejing, a book of sayings encouraging the "way". Lao-Tze's movement directly contradicted Confucianism and religious rituals, instead counseling non-action as action. Although Daoism became wildly popular among many in China, the Daodejing is specifically aimed at rulers, who were in crisis.

Lion man of the Hohlenstein Stadel

The Lion Man is an example of a carved fictitious creature created by paleolithic people living in now-Germany. As one of the oldest examples of a carved figure, its fantastical nature and obvious effort leads researchers and historians to believe that it was a symbolic, ritualistic figure.

Mahabharata

A Hindu story over 100,000 verses long, sung as a massive epic poem, it is the most important piece of Hindu storytelling. It includes the epic of the Pandavas and Kauravas' civil war for power, and reflects on Brahmin and the nature of power. As an aspect of folk religion adapted into Hinduism, it sometimes contradicted Vedic Hinduism.

Mahayana Buddhism

Also known as "great vehicle", a Buddhist movement that refuted the dominance of the Sangha. It's core doctrine was that anyone could follow the path of Buddha or Bodhisattvas, not just Monks., and people could move between worlds as Bodhisattvas. It expanded the pantheon, created a proliferation of new texts, and made Buddhism accessible to all people, whether rulers or laypeople.

Marcion of Sinope

Marcion of Sinope was a radically anti-Jewish early Christian, who believed that the Tanakh was written by an inferior God and should be scrapped. Marcion was the first person to declare a Christian canon, in his case to exclude all vestiges of Judaism. Although his movement did not succeed, its ideas were somewhat compatible with Paul's gentilic Christianity.

Night Journey

The journey Muhammed undertook, carried from Mecca to Jerusalem and then ascending to heaven. He was carried on the back of a winged creature and escorted by Gabriel, and when he reached heaven he talked to Abraham, Jesus, and Allah himself. The Night Journey was especially meaningful to Sufis, who saw it as a reflection of the spiritual journey every Muslim must take.

Nirvana

The ending of the cycle of Samsara and the ascendance beyond the plane of human suffering through temporality. It rejects the being-not being dichotomy and emphasizes unreality. As technically achievable by anyone, emphasizing the power of the mind, the concept was a more populist view of ascendance than any other religion's at the time.

Oracle Bones

Oracle bones were animal bones (mostly ox scalpulas and turtle shells) with statements written on them, which were then placed in the fire, and responses were read by diviners. The answers decreed all kinds of sacrifice and royal action as part of a royal cult practice, and diviners had immense power over royal action. Although of great importance, they were being prescribed ground up as medicine by the 1800s.

Oresteia

A collection of plays by Aeschylus in 458 BCE in Athens, more than twenty years after Athenian liberation from Persia. Surrounding the Trojan war and its effects, Aeschylus compiled, blended, and filled in existing myths in order to make his point. Featuring a fair trial by jury, it acts as a celebration of Athenian law and civilization.

Paul/Saul

Originally a Jewish persecutor of Christians, he had a sudden conversion moment on the road to Damascus when confronted by Christ. He became a zealous Christian, advertising the religion as accessible to anyone who embraced Christ, regardless of non-Jewish status. His movement triumphed over Jewish Christianity, creating a universalizing religion that quickly spread over Europe and today dominates the world.

Persephone

The daughter of Demeter and Zeus, Persephone was abducted by Hades to the underworld, where he raped her and made her his queen. Demeter went mad with anger and grief, demanding her daughter back or she'd drive the Earth into eternal winter. Persephone had eaten underworld fruit, so the deal struck required Persephone to split her time between her worlds, creating seasons.

Pitz (Mesoamerican Ballgame)

Played with rubber balls, struck with hips, on I-shaped courts seen as portals to the underworld, Pitz was an incredibly important part of Mesoamerican culture. Much of the time, losers of Pitz would be sacrificed to the Gods as part of their normal human sacrifices, and winners were much honored. Pitz featured in myths such as the Hun Hunaphu myth.

Prometheus

A brilliant titan who had hedged his bets and sided with the Gods, Prometheus was spared and given privileges with the Gods. He shaped man out of clay, and when he saw them suffering from cold, he stole fire from the Gods and gave it to the humans. When he was caught, Zeus lashed him to a rock and had a eagle eat his liver every day, where it would then grow back every day (he was finally freed by Hercules).

Purgatory

Purgatory was a state where all non-saints or damned went after death. In purgatory, people suffered hellish punishment to atone for their sins, but once that atonement was completed, they ascended to Heaven. People could pray for or give for their loved ones to go through purgatory quicker, which garnered significant means for the Church.

Pythia

The pythia were the women who served the god Apollo as the oracles of Delphi. Speaking for Apollo, they had immense power, answering questions for kings and peasants alike. The Pythia are an example of one of the only routes for female power and ascendancy in Greek culture.

Qu'ran

A book compiled by followers of Muhammed, or alternately the Holy word of Allah, translating to "the recitation". It centers on the unity of Allah and the sin of recognizing other Gods, as well as submission, charity, and the superiority of Islam. It retells Biblical stories as a continuation/improvement/actual realness of the same tradition, as is interpreted through the Haddith.

Shabbetai Zevi

Born in the Ottoman Empire in the 1600s, Zevi preached and performed miracles, claiming to be the Messiah. Followed by hundreds of Jews, he marched to Jerusalem and claimed to be the sultan of the Ottoman empire, to which the actual sultan was angry at and demanded he convert to Islam. He did, and began a new sect of Judaism with Islamic practices, which is still practiced today.

Samsara

In Hindu tradition, Samsara is the cycle of reincarnation according to Karma. One is reborn according to their balance of right and wrong actions (following their caste and how they should perform), or Dharma. Samsara justifies the caste system - "you deserve to be x because you did x in past life" - and the ultimate goal is escaping it.

Sangha

The institution and members of the Monk class, which centered around men (and some women) in Monasteries that are uniquely able to reach enlightenment. They controlled much of India through their popularity, which solicited donations, and fragmented often due to disagreements. As a monastic class, they often excluded others from the concept of Nirvana, which set the stage for Mahayana Buddhism.

Suffism

A sect of Islamic mysticism centered around peoples' direct intimate relationship with Allah. The movement focused on the Night Journey as a metaphor. As a popular religion, it threatened the dominant Muslim authority and spread Islam farther than it ever had.

Thomas Beckett

As the Chancellor and close friend to King Henry II, King Henry bullied the Church into making Beckett the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1162. He was the opposite of a priest and had to be ordained, but the day before he assumed the role he had a revelation and broke from Henry II's grasp. Henry and Beckett had a series of conflicts over legal jurisdiction and sacraments, and Henry eventually had Beckett killed, whereupon he was immediately canonized.

Varna

The Hindu caste system, sprung from early Vedic religion where the Brahmins were the God's mouth, the warriors were the arms, the merchants were the thighs, and the servants were the feet. The final caste of untouchables came later. Varna dictated Dharma, Karma, and the justified social stratification of India.

Vestal Virgins

Virginal Priestesses to Vesta (or Hestia), the Vestal Virgins had to constantly attend to Vesta's fire, which symbolized the health of Rome and fueled all hearths. They were afforded great privileges as women, even holding a measure of power, but on the condition that they remained virgins for the entirety of the service. If they were accused of having had sex, or if the fire went out, they were buried alive.