diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker
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ad populum (bandwagon appeal)
occurs when evidence boils down to "everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do"
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appeal to false authority
This fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority.
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begging the question
A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.
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circular reasoning
a fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence
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either/or (false dilemma)
A fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices.
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faulty analogy
a fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable
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hasty generalization
A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.
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logical fallacy
potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument
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post hoc ergo propter hoc
This fallacy is Latin for "after which therefore because of which," meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. Correlation does not imply causation.
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straw man
A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.
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Aristotelian Triangle/Rhetorical Triangle
A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text.
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Audience
The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple audiences.
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Concession
An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, a \___________ is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument.
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Connotation
Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation.
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Context
The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text.
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Counterargument
An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward.
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Ethos
Speaker's credibility or trustworthiness on any given topic.
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Logos
An appeal based on logic or reason, offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, stats, or expert testimony to back them up.
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Occasion
The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written.
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Pathos
An emotional appeal to motivate the audience. Plays on the audience's values, desires, hopes, fears, and prejudices.
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Persona
Greek for "mask." The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience.
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Polemic
Greek for "hostile." An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others\---generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit.
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Propaganda
The spreading of ideas to promote a cause or to damage an opposing cause.
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Purpose
The goal the speaker wants to achieve.
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Refutation
A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable\---often follow a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable.
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Rhetoric
The art of finding ways to persuade the audience.
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Rhetoric Appeals
Rhetorical techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling (Ethos, Pathos, Logos).
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SOAPS
Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Speaker
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Speaker
The person or group who creates a text, delivers a speech, draws a cartoon, or commissions an advertisement.
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Subject
The topic of a text. What the text is about.
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Text
While this term generally means the written word, in the humanities it has come to mean any cultural product that can be "read" - meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but investigated. This includes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, political cartoons, fine art, photography, performances, fashion, cultural trends, and much more.
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Alliteration
The repetition of initial consonant sounds or syllables.
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Allusion
Brief reference to a person, event, or place (real or fictitious) or to a work of art
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Anaphora
The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or lines.
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Antimetabole
Repetition of words in reverse order.
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Antithesis
Opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction.
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Archaic Diction
Old-fashioned or outdated choice of words.
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Asyndeton
Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.
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Cumulative Sentence
Sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on.
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Hortative Sentence
Sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action.
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Imperative Sentence
Sentence used to command or enjoin.
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Inversion
Inverted order of words in a sentence (variation of the subject-verb-object order).
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Juxtaposition
Placement of two things closely together to emphasize comparisons or contrasts.
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Metaphor
Figure of speech comparing two different things without using like or as.
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Oxymoron
Paradoxical juxtaposition of words that seem to contradict one another.
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Parallelism
Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.
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Periodic Sentence
Sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end.
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Personification
Attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or an idea.
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Rhetorical Question
Figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer.
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Synedoche
Using one part of an object to represent the entire object (for example, power in the hands of the wrong people).
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Zeugma
Use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous, meanings.
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Argument
A process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion.
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Assumption/Warrant
In the Toulmin model, the \__________ expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.
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Backing
In the Toulmin model, backing consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority.
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Claim
Also called an assertion or a proposition, a claim states the argument's main idea or position--differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable.
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Claim of Fact
Asserts that something is true or not true.
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Claim of Policy
Proposes a change.
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Claim of Value
Argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong.
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The Classical Oration
Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians.
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Introduction
Introduces the reader to the subject under discussion
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Narration
Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing.
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Confirmation
Usually the major part of the text, includes the proof needed to make the writer's case.
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Conclusion
Brings the essay to a satisfying close.
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Closed Thesis
A statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make.
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Deduction
A logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise( and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise)\---usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism.
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Fallacy
Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument.
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First-hand Evidence
Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether it's from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.
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Induction
From the Latin inducere, "to lead into"; a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization.
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Open Thesis
A thesis that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay.
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Qualifier
In the Toulmin model, the \__________ uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute.
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Quantitative Evidence
Includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers.
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Reservation
In the Toulmin model, a \_______ explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier.
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Rogerian Argument
Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, \_________________ are based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating.
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Second-hand Evidence
Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.
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Syllogism
A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion.
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Toulmin Model
An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments:
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Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation).
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Synthesis
Considering various viewpoints in order to create a new and more informed viewpoint.
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Bias
Prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair.