PSYC 305 Ch.5 Long term memory/ encoding

Hossein Karimi Ch.5 Long term memory/ encoding

encoding

The processing of information so that it may be represented in memory.

• The first stage of memory formation, processing information for storage.

• Needs to occur before information can be stored and retrieved, thought to require some attention

capacity

• The amount of information that can be held in memory for short or long periods.

  • Working Memory (WM): Limited ____, typically can hold approximately 7 ± 2 items.

  • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Very high or virtually limitless ____.

•  The distinction between WM and LTM may be more theoretical than practically applicable.

time frame

• The duration of memory retention in working and long-term memory.

  • WM: Information lasts less than 1 minute after the mind stops actively thinking about it.

  • LTM: Can last a lifetime; concept of being permanent is debated (termed 'permanent-ish').

•  The distinction between WM and LTM may be more theoretical than practically applicable.

long term memory

_______ is divided into 2 main categories…

• Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Involves conscious recollection.

  • Episodic Memory: Memories for specific events (e.g., your first day of school, your last birthday).

  • Semantic Memory: Organized knowledge about the world, e.g., facts (e.g., the speed of sound is 767 miles per hour).

• Implicit Memory: Used unconsciously.

  • Procedural Memory: Knowledge of how to do something (e.g., riding a bike).

  • Priming: Exposure to a stimulus influences a response without conscious guidance (e.g., participants primed with rude words interrupt more).

  • Classical Conditioning: Biological stimulus paired with neutral stimulus (e.g., being in your kitchen makes you hungry).

explicit memory

AKA declarative memory. Involves conscious recollection.

• Episodic Memory: Memories for specific events (e.g., your first day of school, your last birthday).

• Semantic Memory: Organized knowledge about the world, e.g., facts (e.g., the speed of sound is 767 miles per hour).

implicit memory

• This type of memory is used unconsciously.

  • Procedural Memory: Knowledge of how to do something (e.g., riding a bike).

  • Priming: Exposure to a stimulus influences a response without conscious guidance (e.g., participants primed with rude words interrupt more).

  • Classical Conditioning: Biological stimulus paired with neutral stimulus (e.g., being in your kitchen makes you hungry).

• _____ task examples — Measure memory without intentional retrieval (e.g., completing word-stems).

episodic memory

• Memories for specific events (e.g., your first day of school, your last birthday).

semantic memory

• Organized knowledge about the world, e.g., facts (e.g., the speed of sound is 767 miles per hour).

procedural memory

• Knowledge of how to do something (e.g., riding a bike).

priming

• Exposure to a stimulus influences a response without conscious guidance (e.g., participants primed with rude words interrupt more).

classical conditioning

• Biological stimulus paired with neutral stimulus (e.g., being in your kitchen makes you hungry).

recall

•  Mental search of information that requires intentional retrieval; tasks may include cued ___ or free ___.

recognition

•  Involves verifying whether information was previously experienced; includes identifying old versus new information.

prospective memory tasks

• Measure the ability to remember to perform tasks in the future (e.g., event-based vs. time-based).

  • Event-based: Easier, remembering to do something when an event happens.

  • Time-based: Harder, remembering to do something at a specific time.

storage

• The second stage of memory formation. Saving information for future retrieval.

retrieval

• The third stage of memory formation. Locating and accessing information from storage.

elaborative encoding

• A strategy that relates new information to previously learned material, increasing likelihood of long-term storage and recall.

factors that disrupt encoding

• Sleep Disruption/Deprivation:

  • One night of sleep disruption (Yoo et al., 2007) and chronic sleep deprivation (Cousins et al., 2017).

• Lack of Attention/Multitasking.

• Mental Impairments: Conditions such as depression, anxiety, Alzheimer’s disease.

levels of processing

a theory of encoding by Craik & Tulving (1975). Argues that deep, meaningful processing leads to more accurate recall than shallow processing. 

Benefits of deep processing include…

• Distinctiveness: The stimulus is recognized as unique compared to other memories.

• Elaboration: Increased connections to existing knowledge.

• Self-Reference Effect: Information is more memorable when personally related (e.g., "visualizing the object" vs. "imagining yourself using the object").

Levels of Processing: Issues

• Problems include defining "deep" vs. "shallow" processing and potential circular reasoning.

• Research by Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) showed that:

  • Deep processing improved recall when similar tests were used; shallow processing performed better under shallow tests.

Encoding specificity principle

• A theory of encoding. Recall is better when the conditions during retrieval match the conditions present during encoding.

  • Context-Dependent Memory Study (Godden & Baddeley, 1975)

    • Participants studied lists of words either underwater or poolside, with tests conducted similarly, varying the environment.

    • Those who study on land and take the test on land perform better compared to those who study underwater and take the test on land – vice versa, those who study underwater perform better underwater than they do on land

• Mixed Results in Laboratory Contexts for Encoding-Specificity

  • Observations indicate mixed results from laboratory experiments:

    • The likelihood of better retrieval occurs more on recall tasks than on recognition tasks.

    • Importance of salient context changes, where typical lab manipulations may not yield significant context changes.

    • Mental context could hold more significance than physical context.

cognitive context

• Context can also refer to cognitive aspects; examples include interviews conducted in different languages leading to differing recall based on the language spoken at the time of encoding.

mood dependent memory

• Improved memory occurs when the mood during encoding matches the mood during retrieval, distinct from mood-congruent memory.

state dependent memory

• relates to whether memory retrieval is influenced by physical state during encoding.

  • Studies have shown effects for substances like alcohol and marijuana (Rickles et al., 1973).

  • Caveat/caution: Despite state-dependent memories, substances like alcohol may generally hinder memory formation.

self-reference effect

Information is more memorable when personally related (e.g., "visualizing the object" vs. "imagining yourself using the object").