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developmental psychology
study of psysical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan
Nature vs. Nurture debate
interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences on development; psychologists agree that differences between goups are environmental while individual differences are genetic
continuity & stages
experience and learning seem to develop gradually; biological maturation seems to develop in more abrupt stages
stage theory
the idea that development occurs in distinct stages; helpful as a concept but widely regarded as inaccurate for child development
stability & change
temperament and emotionality remain relatively stable throughout lifetime; social attitudes change heavily
zygote
the fertilized egg; enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
embryo
developing human organism from 2 weeks through the second month
fetus
developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
prenatal development
environmental and genetic factors impact development; fetuses react and adapt to sound such as the mother’s voice; certain substances can pass from the mother to the fetus
teratogen
agnets, such as viruses and drugs, that can damage an embryo or fetus
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant person’s heavy drinking; severe cases can cause small, disproportionate heads and abnormal facial features
alchohol and pregnancy
alchohol leaves epigenetic chemical marks that randomly switch genes on and off and leaves scars that may reduce ability to handle stresss
stress and pregnancy
extreme stress during pregnancy can cause early deliver and health problems
habituation
decreased responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants become familiar with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
newborn mental development
born with many reflexes (eg. startle, suckle, grasping) and can recognize their mother’s scent and prefer it over other women’s scents
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
brain development
occurs rapidly in the days after birth; rapid frontal lobe growth occurs from ages 3 to 6, followed by association areas; lots of pruning occurs in puberty
motor development
children roll over, then sit, then crawl, the walk because of the sequence of nervous system development; development of the cerebellum causes children’s readiness to walk around age 1
brain maturation and memory
infantile amnesia is caused by immature hippocampus and frontal lobes before age 4; this is also why babies struggle with conscious recall of memories
cognition
all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Jean Piaget
proposed that we build schemas a we struggle to make sense of our experiences; proposed 4 stages of cognitive development but underestimated children’s cognitive abilities
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our schema; eg. seeing a hyena and calling it a dog
accommodation
adapting our schemas to incorporate new information; eg. recognizing that hyenas are not dogs
4 stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor
preoperational
concrete operational
formal operational
sensorimotor stage
birth to age 2; infants take in the world in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities; lack object permanence before 8 months and develop stranger anxiety
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived; develops around 8 months
stranger anxiety
fear of unfamiliar people seen in infants in the sensorimotor stage
preoperational stage
ages 2 to 7; child learns to use language but doesn’t yet comprehend mental operations and concrete logic; conservation, artificialism, animism, and egocentrism develop;
conservation
the principle that mass, volume, number, etc. remain that same despite changes in the forms of objects; develops around age 6
symbolic thinking/pretend play
the ability to recognize a model as a representation of something real; develops around age 3
egocentrism
the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view
animism
the preoperational child’s belief that all thinks are living like the child
artificialism
the preoperational child’s belief that all objects are made by people
concrete operational stage
ages 7 to 12; children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events, execute mathematical transformations, and comprehend analogies; children gain reversability, master conservation, and begin to develop theory of mind
theory of mind
people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states; their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors they might predict
reversability
the idea that a concept can be reversed, including but not limited to mathematical operations
formal operational stage
age 12 to adulthood; abstract thinking develops including imagined realities, logic, and mature moral reasoning
Lev Vygotsky
believed the child’s mind grows through social interaction, challenge, and self-talk
scaffold
Vygotsky’s proposed framework to offer children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
zone of proximal development
the difference between what a child can do with the help of others and what they can do independently
role of self talk for children
used to learn and manage their behavior and emotions
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
disorder marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction and rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors; typically appears in childhood
causes of ASD
genetic influences and abnormal development due to prenatal influences
attachment
an emotional tie with another person
childhood attachment
shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and distress on separation
parent-infant attachment development
body contact and familiarity
parent-infant body contact
responsible for much communication between parent and infant; fosters a sense of safety related to the parent as a secure base
parent-infant familiarity
children become attached to their caregivers during a “sensitive period” where mere exposure to things fosters fondness
critical period
optimal period early in the life of an organism where exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development; familiarity attachments form during this period for most animals
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
the strange situation experiment
a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment where a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and their reactions are observed
attachment styles
the way one behaves in a relationship; caused by the interaction of a temperament and parenting style
secure attachment
infants comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return; positively correlated to sensitive, responsive parenting
insecure attachment
marked by anxiety or avoidance of trusting relationships; infants are less likely to explore their surroundings and may even cling to their caregiver, they are either inconsolable or indifferent to their leave and return; positively correlated to inconsistent and neglectful parenting
anxious attachment
marked by craving acceptance and excessive vigilance for signs of possible rejection
avoidant attachment
marked by discomfort getting close to others and using avoidant strategies to remain distant
temperament
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
basic trust
the securely attached child’s sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; proposed by Erik Erikson
effects of attachment deprivation
increased risk for ADHD, reduced brain development, and abnormal stress responses
hardship and child development
hardship increases resilience
trauma and child development
trauma, such as abuse, leaves epigenetic marks and increases risk for psychiatric disorders, addiction, and criminality
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question “who am I?”
self-concept development
children can recognize themselves in a mirror around 15-18 months; around school age, children begin to understand their gender, group memberships, psychological traits, similarities and differences with other, and more
parenting styles
how responsive and demanding parents are
authoritarian parenting
parents are coercive, impose rules and expect obedience; “because I said so”
permissive parenting
parents are unrestraining, make few demands and limits; children are rarely punished
negligent parenting
parents are uninvolved, neither demanding nor responsive, inattentive, and don’t care about developing a close relationship with their children
authoritative parenting
parents are confrontive, demanding and responsive; parents exert control with rules but encourage discussion and make exceptions
effects of authoritarian parenting
children often have decreased social skills and self esteem
effects of permissive parenting
children are often aggressive and immature
effects of negligent parenting
children often have diminished academic and social outcomes
effects of authoritative parenting
children often have higher self-esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence
Erik Erikson
developmental psychologist that proposed securely attached children develop basic trust
Identity
our sense of self; forms during adolescence through testing different versions of “self”
social identity
“we” aspect of self-concept; based on group memberships; typically form around distinctiveness
intimacy
the ability to form close loving relationships
Western Parental Relationships
as western adolsecents seek to form their own identities, they tend to pull away from their parents
emerging adulthood
ages 18-25; one is no longer an adolescent but aren’t fully independent adults; exists in Western cultures
Infancy
up to 1; trust vs. mistrust; if a child’s needs are dependably met, they develop a sense of basic trust
Toddlerhood
1 to 3; autonomy vs. shame and doubt; children learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves or they doubt their abilities
Preschool
3 to 6; initiative vs. guilt;
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