National Parks Exam 1

land as a “commons”

group of people share the use and management of land and resources

John Locke

17th century English Enlightenment philosopher and physician

English: land ownership came through occupancy and use

Labor Theory of Property / Appropriation

Labor Theory of Property / Appropriation

theory of natural law that holds that property originally comes about by the exertion of labor upon natural resources

public domain land

land acquired by treaties, purchases from foreign governments, or cessions from the original states that is owned and managed by, and for, the people of the US

disposal

the sale or granting of public lands into private ownership

land ordinances of 1785 and 1787

• congress did not have the power to raise money from taxes

• goal: raise money by selling land in western territories acquired from Britain

homestead act of 1862

gave an applicant title up to 160 acres of undeveloped public land outside the original 13 colonies. law required a homesteader to file an application, improve the land, and file for deed of title.

railroad land grants

the federal government also gave land grants to railroad companies who would sell the land to raise money they needed to build the railroad

manifest destiny

the belief that the US was destined- by god- to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across north america

logging

used trees for settlements, railroads, agriculture, and fuel

soil and water impacts

removal of natural ecosystems caused widespread soil erosion and altered hydrology

wildlife and hunting

millions of animals eradicated by commercial hunting, species removal programs, and habitat loss

Jackson Turner

Frontier Thesis: idea that american democracy and self image was formed by the american frontier

George Catlin

mapping and exploring interior of the US and painting it

• seeing native american displacement, bison, etc.

• believed areas needed to be protected and that bad things were coming

hot springs reservation

DOI allowed people to build and operate bathhouses which were piped from springs, and the area became a resort

19th Century Environmental Movement: emphasis on human sustainability

focus on how actions from past cultures led to their demise, including the effects of deforestation on water, soil, etc. (George Perkins Marsh)

19th Century Environmental Movement: arguments in terms of man-nature relationships

Morality, equity, divinity, sense of sublime (transcendentalists, Emerson, Thoreau)

Yosemite Valley (1864)

given to California (states’ rights) from the federal government

Exploring Yellowstone (1869-1871)

geologic expeditions of the Yellowstone area by David Folsom, Henry Washburn, and Ferdinand Hayden

Role of Railroads

travel posters and brochures by southern pacific and northern pacific railways

creation of Yellowstone national park

• congressional bill withdrew more than 2 million acres from settlement, occupancy or sale to be “dedicated and set apart as a public park for the enjoyment of people”

• under the control of the US Dept of interior

Antiquities Act of 1906

gave the president the authority to proclaim and reserve historic landmarks, structures, etc. on lands owned or controlled by the US as ‘National Monuments’

Early Problems

• lack of funding

• poaching and vandalism

• absence of management and oversight

• visitor impact

Stephen Mather

American industrialist who led the campaign to promote the creation of a unified federal agency to oversee Nat Parks

• became secretary of interior for park matters

• brought in Horace Alright to Washington as his assistant

organic act of 1916

created national park service and made it responsible for the 36 national parks, monuments and reservations under its control

Growth of NPS

• promote interest and visitation

• enlarge the system by adding new units

• diversify the system

Ansel Adams

photography of the parks

eminent domain

power of state to seize a citizen’s private property for public use with due monetary compensation, without owner’s consent

reorganization of 1933

• 21 forest service monuments transferred to NPS

• expanded NPS to include memorials, military parks and cemeteries, capital parks in DC, GW memorial parkway

• Horace Albright supported it

Dust Bowl and Great Depression

• widespread environmental degradation

• economic depression (FDR’s New Deal Programs)

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

employed young men to plant trees, fight forest fires, and perform other work focused on environmental conservation

Works progress administration (WPA)

broader program that employed millions of Americans to carry out public works projects, including construction of public buildings and roads

contribution of CCC and WPA

improvements in park infrastructure many of which are still around today

Impacts of WWII on NPS

• CCC was dismantled and full-time NPS employees dropped almost 50%

• appropriations fell 75% from 1940 to 1943

• public visits fell

• threats to harvest and develop park resources grew

post WWII growth

• rapid increase in visitation

  • vehicle ownership increase

  • introduction of children to parks

  • family experience

• increase in environmental education

Mission 66

ten year program intended to improve park conditions and dramatically expand visitor services by 1966

benefits of mission 66

• infrastructure: including development of visitor center to streamline and standardize visitor services

• enhanced emphasis on interpretive programs: "living history” and environmental education

park expansion (1952-1972)

• parks for mass recreation: seashores, lakeshores, trails, etc.

• parks focused on historical / cultural themes: units protect historic sites and collections for viewers to understand history and culture

general authorities act (1970)

amendment of 1916 Organic Act to include all areas administered by NPS in one National Park System

alaska national interest lands conservation act (1980)

provided for the creation or revision of 15 NPS units

• continued diversification

• many new additions (joshua tree, dry tortugas, etc.)

evolution of park system

• growth in units: more units and acres and additions to the NPS

• all states have a NP

• system / focus shifted from environmental protection to including recreation and representing history of US and environment

NPS organization

Department of Interior

• NPS director reports to DOI

  • same part of gov. as FWC

• Deputy Directors:

  • operations: manage parks

  • congressional and external relations: interact with congress

  • management and administration: handle finances, personnel, info

• regional offices

two way NPS units can be created

• congressional legislation

• presidential proclamation

NPS: Unit Designations

the diversity of the parks is reflected in the variety of titles given to them

• what visitor should expect

• reflect visibility and funding

what makes a national park?

• resource

• cultural or historical value

• recreational opportunities

• scientific opportunity

• integrity, unspoiled

national park: definition

generally large natural places with a wide variety of attributes including historic assets; established only by congress

national preserves: definition

similar to parks, but usually created to allow certain activities not usually permitted in parks (hunting, oil/gas exploration, etc.)

national monuments: definition

landmarks, structures, etc. of historic or scientific interest (either congress or president can establish via Antiquities act)

recreation-oriented units

emphasize outdoor recreation: rivers, trails, parkways, seashores, lakeshores, etc.

affiliated areas

areas of land or water that are not owned by the federal government but receive support from NPS

can unit names and types change?

yes

reasons for changing name / unit type

• increased visitation and economic impact

• branding and public awareness

• resource allocation and attention

can parks be decommissioned?

yes, can be transferred to NFS or decommissioned to other organizations

(ex. funding, lack of resource, removal of cultural significance)

NPS directives

missions, laws, and policies created for and by NPS and individual parks (NPS wide or park-specific)

broader laws and mandates

federal laws and policies that apply to multiple agencies

Permitted vs. Prohibited Uses

anything that damages park resources is limited or prohibited (ex. hunting, grazing, mining, logging, etc.)

national environmental policy act (NEPA)

NEPA required fed agencies to evaluate environmental effects of proposed agency actions and solicit public input

Categorical exclusion (CatEx)

a category of actions that a federal agency has determined don’t significantly impact the environment

environmental assessment (EA):

document that explores and describes the potential environmental impacts of a proposed action

environmental impact statement (EIS):

doc describing the positive and negative environmental effects of a proposed action and listing one or more alternative (includes public comment)

NPS Budget

• mandatory appropriations: funding based on legislation (visitor services)

• discretionary spending: funding set on yearly basis in congressional appropriations form (park protection)

federal lands recreation enhancement act (FLREA)

• allows NPS to collect revenue and requires money to go toward visitor experience

• 80% of money stays in park and 20% goes to free parks

what is money spent on?

• resource management

• visitor services

• park protection

• facility operations

• park support

• external administration

pre-1960s: little use of science

priority was visitation, facilities, photo ops

less focus on resource protection

yellowstone elk controversy

predator control and winter feeding to increase elk populations led to overgrazing and ecosystem damage. ranger had to kill 4300 elk in 1961

The Leopold Report (1963)

• committee created by sec. of interior to examine wildlife management

• managed to prevent habitat degradation

• report suggested hiring scientists to manage parks (predator control, fire ecology, etc)

National Research Council’s ‘Robbins Report’ (1963):

• each park should define values for management

• need inventory and mapping of resources

• called for research unit within NPS to identify threats

• recommended research on land and resource use to mitigate potential impacts

Issues with the Reports of 1963

• lack of funding

• arguing over who would direct scientists

• debate over direction of NPS (mission 66, expansion of culture, etc.)

From Vignettes to a Global View (1989)

• lack of sufficient research to support informed decisions

• called for more holistic approach to management

Natural resource stewardship and science directorate

provide scientific support to ensure understanding of natural resources so they remain unimpaired

cultural resources, partnerships, and science directorate

provide leadership for nation’s heritage, preserve history, engage with citizens about national identity

‘Resources’ Divisions

generally include experts from scientists to poly analysts who focus on managing and protecting relevant resource in all units of NPS

Examples of management divisions

• social scientists (visitor tracking)

• environmental quality

• inventory and monitoring

• vital signs (health of park)

programs and offices

• national natural landmarks program, climate change response program, etc.

• topics of special interest / resources

• delivering info to public

research learning centers

field stations developed to facilitate collaborative research for education about national parks

citizen science

collection of data from public usually working with scientists. voluntary

benefits of citizen science

• education

• research scope

• policy - informed public