PSYC 248 Exam 2 Study Guide: Learning and Memory Concepts

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69 Terms

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Total Time Hypothesis

The amount learned depends on the time spent learning.

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Deliberate practice

The engagement (with full concentration) in a training activity that is designed to improve a particular aspect of performance, including immediate feedback, opportunities for graduate refinement over repetitions, and problem solving.

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Distributed practice

Studying repeatedly with time intervals between study sessions.

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Massed practice

Studying repeatedly with little or no time passing between study sessions.

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Deficient Processing hypothesis

People pay less attention to recently encountered things and thus do not process them as well as something seen longer ago.

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Encoding Variability

Encoding the same item in more different environments is more successful.

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Reminding

Focus on how reminded with greater strength during retrieval of spaced items than massed items.

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Testing effect

The finding that long-term memory is enhanced when much of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information.

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Test-enhanced learning

The tendency for a period of study to promote much greater learning when that study follows a retrieval test of the studied material.

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Consolidation

The time-dependent process by which a new trace is gradually woven into the fabric of memory and by which its components and their interconnections are cemented together.

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Implicit Memory Test

A test that measures memory without requiring conscious recollection.

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Stem completion

A task whereby retention of a word is tested by presenting the first few letters.

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Word fragment completion tests

A technique whereby memory for a word is tested by deleting alternate letters and asking participants to produce the word.

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Encoding variability hypothesis

Encoding the same item in more different environments is more successful.

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Expanding Retrieval practice

Commonly thought that recalling at greater time intervals improves learning.

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Dual-coding hypothesis

Items that are easy to visualize are encoded as images and words, and are therefore easier to retrieve.

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Depth of processing

The proposal by Craik and Lockhart that the more deeply an event is processed, the better later episodic memory will be.

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Transfer-appropriate processing

Proposal that retention is best when the mode of encoding and mode of retrieval are the same.

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Incidental learning

Learning situation in which the learner is unaware that a test will occur.

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Intentional learning

Learning when the learner knows that there will be a test of retention.

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Rote/Maintenance rehearsal

Repeatedly rehearsing an item on the same level.

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Elaborative rehearsal

Adding information to items as you rehearse them.

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Encoding

Moving info from short-term memory into long-term memory.

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Mere exposure effect

Just being exposed to something more makes you like it more.

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Schema

Long-term structured knowledge used to make sense of new material and subsequently store and recall it.

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Retrieval

The process of getting information back out of long-term memory.

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Cues

Pieces of information that are associated with a memory.

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Target memory

The thing that you actually want to get back.

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Association

How memories are linked together.

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Spreading activation

Activated when we see, hear, or think about a concept. Activation then spreads rapidly to other concepts.

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Pattern completion

A cognitive process where partial information triggers the retrieval of a complete memory.

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Encoding specificity principle

Retrieval is more likely to be successful if the conditions at recall are similar to those that occurred at encoding.

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Retrieval mode

The cognitive set, or frame of mind, that orients a person towards the act of retrieval, ensuring that stimuli are interpreted as retrieval cues.

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Direct/explicit memory tests

Any of a variety of memory assessments that overtly prompt participants to retrieve past events.

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Implicit Memory Tests

Tests such as stem completion, fragment completion, and lexical decision that assess memory without direct prompts.

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Source monitoring

The process of examining the contextual origins of a memory in order to determine whether it was encoded from a particular source.

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Context-dependent memory

Memory benefits when the spatio-temporal, mood, physiological, or cognitive context at retrieval matches that present at encoding.

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State-dependent memory

Memory retrieval that is influenced by the individual's state, such as being drunk or high.

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Mood-dependent memory

Memory retrieval that is influenced by the individual's mood, such as being happy or sad.

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Recall and Recognition memory

Different types of memory tests where recall involves retrieving information without cues, while recognition involves identifying previously learned information from a set of options.

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Signal detection theory

Focuses on the memory decisions we make during recognition tasks.

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Tip of the tongue state

Occurs when we know information but cannot successfully retrieve it.

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Incidental forgetting

Occurs without the intention to forget.

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Motivated forgetting

Occurs when people purposefully engage in processes/behaviors that intentionally diminish a memory's accessibility.

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Forgetting curve/retention function

Ebbinghaus (1913) studied memory for nonsense syllables and plotted a forgetting curve showing a rapid rate of forgetting initially followed by less additional forgetting at longer delays.

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Exponential forgetting

Proportion loss is constant with time.

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Power-law forgetting

Proportion loss decreases with time.

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Accessibility

Whether the memory can be retrieved, given that it is stored.

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Availability

Whether or not an item is in the memory store.

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Trace decay

The gradual weakening of memories resulting from the mere passage of time.

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Retroactive interference

The tendency for newer memories to interfere with retrieval of older memories.

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Proactive interference

The tendency for older memories to interfere with retrieval of more recent experiences.

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Retrieval-induced forgetting

The tendency for the retrieval of some target items from long-term memory to impair the later ability to recall other items related to those targets.

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Inhibition (in retrieval-induced forgetting)

When you are trying to recall a specific memory, but related, irrelevant memories are actively suppressed.

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Directed forgetting

Told to forget words but then later tested on all words.

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Item-method directed forgetting

Instructs participants to forget specific items in a longer list.

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List-method directed forgetting

Asks participants to forget an entire set of items.

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Selective rehearsal

Items that receive a 'remember' instruction are encoded more deeply.

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Encoding suppression

Encoding is stopped for items that receive a 'forget' instruction.

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Retrieval inhibition hypothesis

It becomes more difficult, but not impossible, to retrieve items from the 'Forget' list.

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Context shift hypothesis

The mind shifts into a different mental context when it begins to encode the 'Remember' list.

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Cognitive control

The ability to activate wanted thoughts and prevent unwanted thoughts from distracting us.

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Think/no think paradigm

Memorizing a set of cues and then having to recall or suppress retrieval.

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Direct suppression

Directly prevent the unwanted thought from being retrieved.

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Thought Substitution

Think of something different instead of the unwanted thought.

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Spontaneous recovery

The re-emergence of a previously extinguished behavior after a rest period.

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Hypermnesia

The improvement of memory over time after repeated testing.

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Reminiscence

Remembering items that were unrecallable in past sessions without additional relearning.

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Cue Reinstatement

When someone returns to a place where they previously experienced a significant event, causing vivid memories of that event to resurface.