1955-63 Affluence and Conformity

Across the years 1955-63 who were the presidents? What were their dates? What party were they?

Eisenhower (1953-61)

Kennedy (1961-63)

1955-66 ^ affluence saw what social and cultural changes?

Growth in suburbia, decr cities, mass production

What problems did Eisenhower face?

• Nuclear threat from soviet union

• consumerism

• American youth

• Race relations

• Economic inequality

What cars did wc/mc tend to buy in 1955? What did they tend to cost?

Chevrolets and Fords - $1,300 (2/5 of average family income)

How many cars were made in 1955?

7.9 million

Despite Eisenhowers general dislike for gov intervention, he initiated a highway construction plan. Why?

What did it lead to?

• the roads with in his words ‘shocking condition’

• ^ car ownership (7.9 mil manufactured in 1955) → necessity for interstate highway to deal with traffic

• car → ^ happiness and standards of living

Led to 41,000 miles of interstate highway

What/How were car designed for women?

Dodge La Femme - matching lipstick and bag

Ford Victoria - matching clothes

Explain on-the-road culture

^ road usage → need for cheap accommodation 1952 first Holiday Inn

1960 - 228 Macdonalds

This created ^ jobs (often employing young people)

How did ^ car ownership → suburbanisation?

People could easily commute into cities to work and return home to their spacious house. This led to those not being able to afford to move out staying → deterioration of cities

In this period there was an ^ in white collar and decr in blue-collar jobs. How many more service jobs were there in 1960 then 1950?

6 million more white collar jobs in 1960 than 1950

What was the impact of decrease in blue-collar jobs?

Economically depressed areas in industrial heartland e.g Midwest

What were the four main reasons for growth of surburbia?

1. Extreme post war housing shortage → veterans being able to buy house with no down-payment → ^ home ownership

2. Suburb houses cheaper than inner city

3. ^ car ownership

4. Poorer BA’s in city centred → ‘White Flight’ from cities

What was the first Levittown? What rules were many Levittown home-owners expected to follow? Give an example of how they were often racially exclusive

• Hempstead 1947- 80,000 residents

• Weekly Lawn mowing, no washing hung out on weekends, no fences

• First Black family in New Jersey 1960 - William Levitt said if they let a black family in it’ll decr white interest in the area by 95%

What two main factors changed the racial profile of cities?

Black American Great Migration to northern cities (1910-70 around 6 mill Black USAs migrated north)

White Flight to suburbia

How did white racism → ^ urban ghettos?

• Restriction to exclude black people from white neighbourhoods (despite being illegal since 1948)

• White Stage ‘housing riots’ - e.g 1951 thousands of white people used riots and burning to drive out only black family

• White flight

• Fed gov policies promoted racial segregation

In 1960’s the average American family had …% more purchasing power than in the 50s? This led to what?

30% → consumerism

^ domestic technology → what? How was this furthered?

Easier life for housewives → American dream

It was furthered by advertisement, celebrity profiles and TV

Teenage consumerism → How much more spent on entertainment? How many more record players bought?

• $1.5 bil + spent on entertainment

• 10 mil record players sold

What terms did critics use to mock the conformity of the 50s and 60s?

‘slurbs’ or ‘disturbia’

When was The Organization Man published? Who wrote it? What idea did it try to convey? How many copies were sold?

1956 - written by William Whyte

• suggested not everyone was happy to conform to the corporate ‘organisation man’ that had been created. Argued that this conformity → destruction of individualism that made America great.

• sold 2 mil copies - best seller

What % of homes had TVs by 1960?

90%

Name a TV show that promoted conformity?

‘Father Knows Best’ - 1950s family sitcom portraying white, domestic bliss

What promoted consumerism?

Adverts and show such as ‘I remember mamma’ (children telling immigrant parents consumerism was good)

Some argue ^ TV made viewers I… and P…

What phrase depict this aspect of conformity?

Inactive and passive

‘The tranquillised 50s’

Why was The Nat King Cole Show dropped?

Black singer and racism → difficulty retaining sponsorship. Suggestion to use white makeup but looked odd. Conformist need to keep sponsors happy

Explain the significance in terms of conformity and Challenge on the movie Blue Denim and the musical south Pacific.

Blue Denim (1959)

• Based on play were 15-year-old has abortion but in film an abortion is never mentioned

South Pacific (1958)

• Two interracial couples - hit in most of US but nearly caused race riots in arts of south

What did critics of adverts argue?

Adverts → psychological manipulation e.g candies targeted towards bored children

How did the Marlboro Filter cigarette advert prove the power of advertisement and also the fickle nature of viewer?

They were considered feminine before an advert that associated them with the Wild West and masculinity → soaring of sales

Describe the ‘beat generation’

Mc , young ‘beats’. Rejecting materialism. Stood for free love, spontaneity, and defying authority

What wrote ‘Howl’? What is the significance of it?

Allen Ginsberg (beat)

• A poem about drugs, homosexuality, defying conformity. Written under influence of drugs

• There was a national trial about the absurdity of this poem

How significant were the beats?

150 became writers

• estimates for rest of beats range of several hundred to several thousand.

They were however largely a minority

Who were the beatniks?

• Superficial version of beat - developed when it was ‘trendy’ to be anti-establishment. Not liked by beats

• ‘nik’ after soviet ‘sputnik’ used to suggest anything anti-American

• Conformist in the way they were conforming to the non-conformists

How was rock ‘n roll significant to the teenage generation?

‘young music’ - first generation with distinct musical taste from there parents

• combined ‘Black’ music with hillbilly/country music

2 reasons why Rock n’ roll was popular amongst youths?

• Sense of identity

• ^ temporary jobs→ money spent on albums

What did the Times magazine liken rock’n’ roll concerts to? Whose attitudes did this reflect?

Hitler Rallies reflecting the attitudes of the older/more conservative generation

Explain the significance of Elvis Presley. What aspects of him show conformity and what show challenge?

Conformity

• Recording studio owner wanted to find ‘a white man with a n**** sound’ and found Elvis

• Censorship - Ed Sullivan show only shown waist up

• Becomes conformist - love ballads, christian beliefs

Challenge

• Poor upbringing (father in jail) and while many white families not wanting to be in housing projects (many black people) it was the best they could afford

• He had a sex appeal to female audiences - ‘Elvis the Pelvis

• Revolutionary lyrics focused on love and challenging social conventions

Name a famous Black Rock ‘n’ roll artist

Chuck Berry

Give examples of social inferiority of Black Americans in the South in 1955

• Sitting at the back of the bus

• drinking from ‘coloured’ water fountain

• Served food from a side window with paper cups/plates so no white would have to us it too

In 1955 what % of BA could not vote? How was it made hard for BA to get the vote?

80% couldn’t vote

• Intimidated with white violence

• Literacy test - impossible questions unrelated to politics, Rosa Parks (very intelligent) failed

• Once passed literacy test had to pay expensive poll tax - many BA impoverished

What type of jobs did BA’s typically have in 1950s? How was there a cycle of poverty for BA?

Low-paid e.g Sharecroppers, domestic

Segregated schools and unis often with worse equipment and unqualified teachers (Average $49 to educate black child vs $179 for white child) → fewer qualification and worse education → worse paid jobs

Give an example of how BA went unprotected by the court

1955 - Emmett Wilson wolf-whistled a woman → mutilated body dragged out of Mississippi river. Murders faced no consequences

Jim Crow Laws

Explain de jure vs de facto segregation

De jure - legal

De facto - although not specified in law, a continuation (of segregation) in societal attitudes on the ground

Who were the NAACP? What were their main aims?

National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People set up in 1909

Wanted to make 11 mil BA politically, intelectually, economically and socially free/equal

NAACP wanted to overturn Plessy vs Ferguson. What did this 1896 ruling do?

Made Jim Crow Laws constitutional - ‘seperate but equal’

What was the Brown ruling. How was it hugely significant for NAACP? How was it limited?

Success

• 1954 SC ruling - Separate schools in south were not equal and therefore unconstitutional

• Overturned Plessy vs Ferguson

Limited

• SC had no control over enforcement → many school remaining segregated

• NAACP didn’t bring de facto change

What was the cause of the Montgomery bus boycott? What was the trigger for it?

• Actions of bus drivers - mother put children down on front white seat to pay bus fare → driver shouting and accelerating so children fell into the aisle

• Rosa Parks refusing to give up seat and stand → arrest 1955

Give examples of racial prejudice that Rosa Parks had to deal with in her life

• growing up slept fully dressed incase KKK attack in the night

• Joined NAACP in WW2

• Her and husband Lost jobs in 1955 after her arrest and white landlord ^ their rent

What was the initial aim of the bus boycott? How did its aims change?

Initially only fought against system of moving back Black seating so no WA would have to stand

This was refused → year-long boycott for full integration

Who led the bus boycott? Who participated?

Martin Luther King Jr (MLK) led it with the backing of Montgomery’s almost entire 50,000 Black population

What were the consequences of the Montgomery bus boycott?

• White Citizen Council used arrests to intimidate MLK but drew nat attention to the boycott

• NAACP won legal battle to end segregated buses in 1956 Browder vs Gayle

• New Black leader of MLK emerged

• Only Montgomery’s buses were desegregate - not national success

What revitalised the KKK in 1954? How was their impact limited?

Brown Ruling revitalised them

When Montgomery buses were desegregated → 40 car loads of hooded KKK members through Montgomery’s black community but rather than retreating black community waved at them

What violent activities did the KKK persist with in the 50s/60s?

During the 70s how much did the KKK member ship ^?

• Bombing MLK’s house during Birmingham Campaign

• attacking freedom riders

• cross-burnings, church-burnings, beatings, shootings, murders

Membership x3 in 70s

What sparked the emergence of White Citizens Councils?

What did membership peak at?

Brown Ruling

250,000 in 1956

What did White Citizens Councils do?

How were they different from KKK?

• defended segregation

• racist propaganda (e.g children’s books with segregated heavens)

• Economic pressures on civil rights activists. (e.g 53 BA lost their jobs in Mississippi)

Not associated with KKK-style violence

When was the Little Rock Crisis? Explain the events of it

1957 - after Brown Ruling in city of Little Rock

• Central High School had 9 Black students joining in 1957

• Governor Faubus (using racism to gain re-election) wanted to keep them out.

• White mob surrounded the ‘Little Rock Nine’

• Eisenhower sent in troops to protect them to avoid break down of Law and Order

• Little Rock Nine faced attacks e.g chemical thrown, pushed down stairs

What was Governor Faubus’s response to Little Rock?

Rather than integrate he closed all school 1958-59

What were the consequences of Little Rock?

Media attention ^ sympathy

Little Rock School finally integrated by 1960

Who set up the idea of Freedom Rides? What were freedom Rides?

Set up by CORE

Integrated group would travel on buses to test rulings of integrated public transport

Frequently beaten up

When was the Birmingham Campaign?

Who led it?

What were its aims?

Why was Birmingham Chosen?

• 1963

• MLK and his SCLC

• Aimed to desegregate public facilities

• Birmingham ‘worst’ city for segregation and MLK knew he’d get backlash → ^ publicity

Explain the events of the Birmingham Campaign

• Protests - MLK arrest

• ‘Letter from Birmingham Jail’ - written on toilet paper. MLK defending direct action and provoking white violence

• Letter published internat

• → ^ protests marches (MLK controversially got school children involved)

What were the results of the Birmingham March

• In Birmingham race relations decr (bombing → death of 4 black girls sept 1963)

• Exposed southern bigotery → JFK pressing for civil rights Act

• Power of mass demonstrations - ‘the greatest weapon’ according to MLK

When was the Washington March?

What were its aims?

How many marchers were there?

1963

Aims of NAACP, SCLC, SNCC for peaceful march for Civil Right Bill. Worried many BA turning to violence

250,000

What impact did the Washington March have?

What famous MLK speech came out of it?

Huge emotional impact → CRM presented as united and non-violent

→ ‘I have a Dream’ speech - call for freedom and equality

What were the 3 aims of Kennedy’s new Frontier?

1. Combat poverty

2. Achieve Peace

3. Develop his Space Programme

Give examples of what JFK wanted from congress in terms of domestic issues

• New department to deal with deteriorating urban housing (70% of USAs in cities)

• ^ min wage

• Scheme to help unemp

• tax X to stimulate eco

What Act did JFK introduce to extend employment opportunities and create training programmes for unemp, underemp, and unskilled workers? How many jobs did it create?

1961 - Area Redevelopment Act

Made 26,000 jobs

Despite 1961 Area Redevelopment Act, how many people remained unemp?

5 mill

When/What was the minimum wage Act? How many remained uncovered by the act?

1961

• $1 → $1.25

• covered 3.6 mil more workers

½ mil of poorest not covered (e.g Black laundry women). Repub and southern dems no desire to help them

When/What was the Omnibus Housing Act?

1961

$5bil to extend existing programmes to help unemp and poor e.g urban renewal, public housing

What did JFK’s food stamp programme lead to?

feeding of 240,000 people at gov cost of$22 mil annually

For what 2 reasons did JFK see legislative failure within his New Frontier?

• Failure to get congressional support for…

  • fed finance for schooling

  • civil right bill to X Jim crow

  • Tax X to stimulate eco

• No major new reform. Majority just extending pre-existing schemes

What are the reasons for JFK’s legislative failings?

• Congress dominated by Repub and Southern Dems (opposing fed spending and intervention)

• Congressmen representing small areas opposed big city spending and Southerners rejected spending on ghettos

• JFK bad at congressional bargaining

• US failure in invasion of communist Cuba

What were JFK’s public and private aims with the peace corps?

Public

• help impoverished countries in Asia and Africa

• Sending young volunteers to poorer nations to teach and give aid

Private

• Wanted to counter soviet propaganda that US exploited weaker nations.

How many countries did the Peace Corps help?

44

What did critics call the Peace Corps?

What % of USAs approved of peace corps?

‘Kennedy’s Kiddie Korps’

71% approved

Explain briefly what happened in Cuba

• Eisenhower had plan to support invasion which JFK executed in 1961 - it failed

• 1962 2nd Cuban crisis → soviets removing missiles from Cuba → Kennedy seen as victor

How did JFK ^ US involvement with Vietnam?

When JFK entered Whitehouse, 1,000 military and advisors were in Vietnam.

When he died there were 20,000 advisors there

What was the significance of sputnik, how did it lead to US embarrassment?

• 1957 - soviets sent first satellite (sputnik into space ) and boasted about their achievement

• Month later US did the same but it failed → international coverage - nicknamed ‘flopnik’

Desperate for a cold war win, what did Kennedy do? How much was spent on it?

Wanted first man on the moon by end of decade → Neil Armstrong on the Apollo 11 in 1969 → international acclaim

Spent $40 bil on it ($225 per American)

What were JFK’s public and private aims with the moon landing?

Public

• Challenge of ‘uncharted areas of science and space’ with such achievements showing a nation’s success

Private

• admitted to NASA chief he was only interested in beating the soviet - no interest in space

What triggered the environmentalist movement in the US?

Book by Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (1962), → JFK inviting her to White House

How did JFK respond to environmentalist movement?

Positively (invited Racheal Carson to White house) however meaningful fed gov action came under Johnson and Nixon