AP Psychology: Cognition Unit

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

Information-processing model of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, but there is more nuance with lost memories

parallel processing

the processing of many pieces of information simultaneously

explicit (declarative) memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare," encoded through effortful, conscious processing, often formed deliberately through rehearsal

implicit (nondeclarative) memory

Long-term memory for procedural tasks, classically conditioned associations between stimuli and primary effects. This type of memory does not require conscious awareness or the need to make declarations about the information remembered, automatically processed.

Automatic processing & implicit memories: without conscious effort, you can automatically process information about

Space, time, and frequency

sensory memory

the typically the 1st step in processing memories, the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few milliseconds

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

short-term/working memory

The part of your memory system that contains information you are consciously aware of before it is stored more permanently with active processing or forgotten, can retain 7 +/-2 pieces of information

Chunking

Effortful processing of organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Ex: 1-800-_ phone numbers

mnemonics

Effortful processing of memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Ex: PEMDAS

Hierarchies

Effortful processing of complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

distributed practice with enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words, phonemic/auditory inputs, and only involves maintenance rehearsal

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention, elaboration rehearsal: reworking (talking to someone else about it or rewording it,) method of Loci (linking information with familiar spaces such as areas of your home,) and imagery (visual encoding)

The deeper (more meaningful) the processing?

the better our retention

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences, stored in many parts of the brain that interact when we encode, store, and retrieve information

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. it acts as a "save" button or loading dock for explicit memories, a temporary space for sensory info that will then migrate elsewhere for storage. damage will result in loss of explicit memories

Frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments, when recalling a memory many brain regions send input to your frontal lobes for working memory processing

Sleep and memory consolidation

Sleep supports memory consolidation, when asleep the hippocampus processes memories, and it is suspected that an active hippocampus during sleep indicates the replaying of a day's events as they are put into long-term storage

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. It plays a key role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia

a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional motor movements, facilitates the formation of procedural memories for skills

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve episodic memories from before age 3, though learned conditioned responses and implicit memories can occur (due to the cerebellum & basal ganglia)

flashbulb memories

a clear, vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event and circumstances surrounding it. emotions trigger the release of stress hormones, provoking the amygdala to boost activity in memory-forming areas of the brain

synaptic changes

As you learn, your brain creates neural connections & the more you revist information or stimulate those neural connections, the stronger the connections and the faster the synapses will fire- making remembering easier & faster

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

retrieval cues

associated stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory, the more retrieval cues the better the chances of retrieving the memory

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

context-dependent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same

state-dependent memory

Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state (drunk, high, sober, etc.) at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past, effects mostly explicit memory, while procedural/implicit memory remains

Ribot's Law

Old memories are more resistant to disease/disruption than new memories, more recent memories are lost first in retrograde amnesia

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories, far less common than retrograde amnesia, typically results from damage to the hippocampus. Exemplified in Patient HM

Herman Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

retrieval failure

although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed

PORN

Proactive

Old information blocks new

Retroactive

New information blocks old

Information presented in the hour before sleep is

protected from retroactive interference because the opportunity for interfering events is minimized

positive transfer

when previously learned information facilitates the learning of new information

negative transfer

when previously learned information does not facilitate the learning of new information

motivated forgetting (repression)

memory systems self-censor painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept & minimize anxiety, central idea in Freud-s Psychoanalytic Theory, modern memory researchers state the repression rarely, if ever, occurs

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event. each time you replay a memory, we replace the original with a slightly modified version of the memory.

Elizabeth Loftus

Known for her work in the study of false memory formation and the misinformation effect, specifically in relation to eyewitness testimonies. Famous for her car crash experiment- After viewing a video, those who were asked the question with the smashed wording were much more likely to "remember" seeing broken glass in a later question (in reality, no glass had been broken in the accident). They also remembered the car as driving much faster.

source amnesia (source misattribution)

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

deja vu

A type of source amnesia, that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

children's eyewitness recall

can be inaccurate with suggestive questioning; can be effective with neutral questions, simple and neutral words, given by a neutral person, no contact with involved adults; children want to please adults. children under the age of three don't have reliable, conscious memories due to infantile amnesia.

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas, intelligence can be an indicator of creativity

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution, black and white thinking- speed, accuracy, & logic

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)- spontaneous, free-flowing, and non-linear

Sternberg's five components of creativity

expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

algorithms

very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems that guarantee solutions

heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always), more efficient but more error prone

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

belief perserverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

mind-set

tendency to approach a problem with a mind-set of what has worked in the past

intuition

brain process that gives people the ability to make decisions without the use of analytical reasoning. fast and automatic, contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

We fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to fear

fear of snakes, lizards, spiders, bugs, heights, etc- "yesterday's risks"

we fear what we cannot control

Driving we control; flying we do not.

We fear what is immediate

takeoff and landing while flying vs diffused dangers of driving

We fear what is most readily available in memory

Availability heuristic, less likely to think of more innocuous causes of death

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes

the smallest meaningful units of language

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech, develops at around 4 months old

productive language

ability to produce words, matures after receptive language

babbling stage

stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds- "na-na"

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words- "dog!"

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements- "want juice"

telegraphic stage

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words

Noam Chomsky and language

suggested that we all possess an innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during the sensitive developmental years in early childhood

universal grammar

What happens to children who haven't been exposed to language before their critical period ends?

They lose the ability to learn language, destined for being linguistically stunted.

aphasia

impairment of language