Move to Global War - 1.1. The impact of nationalism and militarism on Japan’s foreign policy: the origins, 1853–1930
It is important to look at the roots of Japanese nationalism and militarism.
Nationalism: when the people of a country strongly support the interests of their own nation, possibly to the detriment of the interests of other nations.
Militarism: when a government or the people of a country believe that it is necessary to have a strong military in order to both defend and promote the interests of their country.
Several factors contributed to the nationalism:
Determination to transform Japan into a Western-style power.
Japan's belief in its destiny as the leader of Asia.
The need to obtain raw materials and secure markets in East Asia.
The need for strategic security.
The actions of the Western powers
Growing support for militarism and expansionism within Japan.
Nationalism was linked with an imperialist foreign policy.
It began in the second half of the 19th century with Japan's first contact with the West.
Previously, Japan had been ruled by the Shogun and had been shielded from the outside world.
Shogun: since 1192, Japan had been ruled by a feudal military dictatorship called the bakufu. Although the emperor was still officially the ruler, in practice the power lay in the hands of the Shogun, who was a military dictator. Beneath the Shogun were the daimyo (feudal lords), and under the daimyo were samurai (warriors).
US Commodore Matthew Perry docked in 1853 with steamships.
He wanted them to open up to trade.
Japan signed the Treaty of Kanagawa.
They were intimidated by the ships and wary of what had happened to China.
China had resisted, and they were forced to sign humiliating treaties.
This treaty had many effects:
Political power returned to the Meiji, the emperor.
Feudal systems were dismantled, to establish a limited form of democracy.
Promotion of national unity and patriotism.
A lot of reforms took place in many sectors, especially in the military.
The military was modernized, adapting to German tactics and founding a navy with British help.
In 1894, Japan won the first Sino-Japanese War.
The Treaty of Simonoseki gave Formosa and Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.
It also guaranteed Korean independence.
And forced China to pay a large indemnity and open additional ports.
Afterward, Germany, Russia, and France forced Japan to give up the Liaodong Peninsula.
Russia took it for itself.
France and Great Britain took advantage of a weakened China to expand their spheres of influence.
The military success of the war and the frustration of having to give up land encouraged the growth of nationalism and militarism in Japan.
Japan's position was further strengthened by an alliance with Britain in 1902.
This ended Japan's diplomatic isolation.
It was also the first time a military alliance had been signed between West and non-West.
Russia and Japan clashed over interests in Korea and Manchuria.
Japan attacked in 1904 to trigger the first Russo-Japanese war.
Russia's fleet was destroyed by Japan's in the Tsushima Strait.
Russia was forced to accept the Treaty of Portsmouth, so Japan gained control of Korea and South Manchuria, along with railway rights in Manchuria.
Other Asian countries started to see Japan as a role model and reaffirmed Japan's belief as the destined ruler of Asia.
Manchuria was very important to Japan.
It was four times larger than the Japanese islands.
It was agriculturally rich with mineral resources.
It offered living space for the rapidly growing Japanese population.
It could act as a buffer against threat from Russia.
The First World War benefited Japan.
It declared war on Germany when it refused to concede territory, and seized its bases on the Shandong Peninsula in north China.
While the Allies were distracted, it issued China with the Twenty One Demands, which were later modified due to an outraged USA.
One of these demands included that China was to accept Japanese political, financial, and military advisors.
Japan was also granted commercial privileges in Manchuria.
Japan supplied goods to the Allies.
It secured the German Pacific islands and economic privileges on the Shandong Peninsula at Versailles.
But they were unable to get racial equality clauses included in the Charter of the League of Nations.
During the Russian Civil War, they sent 70,000 men to support the Whites alongside the Allies, and refused to leave until they were defeated.
Britain and the USA stopped trusting Japan.
The flow of Japanese immigrants to the USA increased substantially.
They were faced with fear and discrimination.
The 1924 Immigration Act discriminated against Japan by making it the only country not to be allowed any quota of immigrants into the USA.
It changed its foreign policy to internationalism.
It sought to develop Japan's economy via peaceful means.
It sought trade with the USA and economic advancement in China within the framework of international agreement.
This was pushed by ambassador Shidehara Kijuro.
Several international agreements were signed to form the Washington Treaty System during the Washington Conference of 1921:
Four-Power Treaty: Britain, USA, France, and Japan, to protect its possessions in the Pacific.
Nine-Power Treaty: China, Belgium, Italy, Netherlands, and Portugal + four powers. Sought to respect Chinese independence.
Five-Power Naval Treaty: restricted competition in battleships and aircraft carriers by setting a ratio of 5:5:3 to UK, USA, and Japan. 1.75 to France and Italy. Japan had to relinquish plans of an Imperial Navy.
A fragile democracy
The system no longer inspired respect because of financial scandals and the parties' links to big businesses.
There was also fear of left-wing radicalism.
Opposition to Shidehara's internationalism and the growing influence of the military on foreign policy
Conservatives and the army questioned Shidehara's foreign policy, they believed it to be a betrayal of Japan's interests.
The population wanted to see Japan as the leader of Asia.
The US imposed a limitation on Asian immigration, which offended the Japanese.
A growing economic crisis
In 1921, a strike paralyzed Japan's docks.
There was a large division between big businesses and farmers.
Then came the Great Depression in 1929.
The Japanese government turned to repression instead of democracy.
China was a very weak and unstable country.
By the 19th century, it was a semi-colonial country.
They had been opened forcibly for trade by the West.
They lost the Opium Wars against Britain.
They lost the Sino-Japanese War, which was fought for influence over Korea.
In 1911, a revolution toppled the Manchu dynasty, and the warlords fought against each other.
In the 1920s, the two main parties had a strong rivalry.
Guomindang Nationalist Party, led by Jiang Jieshi.
Communist Party of China.
On the other hand, Japan wanted to become equal to the West.
This involved having colonies.
It is important to look at the roots of Japanese nationalism and militarism.
Nationalism: when the people of a country strongly support the interests of their own nation, possibly to the detriment of the interests of other nations.
Militarism: when a government or the people of a country believe that it is necessary to have a strong military in order to both defend and promote the interests of their country.
Several factors contributed to the nationalism:
Determination to transform Japan into a Western-style power.
Japan's belief in its destiny as the leader of Asia.
The need to obtain raw materials and secure markets in East Asia.
The need for strategic security.
The actions of the Western powers
Growing support for militarism and expansionism within Japan.
Nationalism was linked with an imperialist foreign policy.
It began in the second half of the 19th century with Japan's first contact with the West.
Previously, Japan had been ruled by the Shogun and had been shielded from the outside world.
Shogun: since 1192, Japan had been ruled by a feudal military dictatorship called the bakufu. Although the emperor was still officially the ruler, in practice the power lay in the hands of the Shogun, who was a military dictator. Beneath the Shogun were the daimyo (feudal lords), and under the daimyo were samurai (warriors).
US Commodore Matthew Perry docked in 1853 with steamships.
He wanted them to open up to trade.
Japan signed the Treaty of Kanagawa.
They were intimidated by the ships and wary of what had happened to China.
China had resisted, and they were forced to sign humiliating treaties.
This treaty had many effects:
Political power returned to the Meiji, the emperor.
Feudal systems were dismantled, to establish a limited form of democracy.
Promotion of national unity and patriotism.
A lot of reforms took place in many sectors, especially in the military.
The military was modernized, adapting to German tactics and founding a navy with British help.
In 1894, Japan won the first Sino-Japanese War.
The Treaty of Simonoseki gave Formosa and Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.
It also guaranteed Korean independence.
And forced China to pay a large indemnity and open additional ports.
Afterward, Germany, Russia, and France forced Japan to give up the Liaodong Peninsula.
Russia took it for itself.
France and Great Britain took advantage of a weakened China to expand their spheres of influence.
The military success of the war and the frustration of having to give up land encouraged the growth of nationalism and militarism in Japan.
Japan's position was further strengthened by an alliance with Britain in 1902.
This ended Japan's diplomatic isolation.
It was also the first time a military alliance had been signed between West and non-West.
Russia and Japan clashed over interests in Korea and Manchuria.
Japan attacked in 1904 to trigger the first Russo-Japanese war.
Russia's fleet was destroyed by Japan's in the Tsushima Strait.
Russia was forced to accept the Treaty of Portsmouth, so Japan gained control of Korea and South Manchuria, along with railway rights in Manchuria.
Other Asian countries started to see Japan as a role model and reaffirmed Japan's belief as the destined ruler of Asia.
Manchuria was very important to Japan.
It was four times larger than the Japanese islands.
It was agriculturally rich with mineral resources.
It offered living space for the rapidly growing Japanese population.
It could act as a buffer against threat from Russia.
The First World War benefited Japan.
It declared war on Germany when it refused to concede territory, and seized its bases on the Shandong Peninsula in north China.
While the Allies were distracted, it issued China with the Twenty One Demands, which were later modified due to an outraged USA.
One of these demands included that China was to accept Japanese political, financial, and military advisors.
Japan was also granted commercial privileges in Manchuria.
Japan supplied goods to the Allies.
It secured the German Pacific islands and economic privileges on the Shandong Peninsula at Versailles.
But they were unable to get racial equality clauses included in the Charter of the League of Nations.
During the Russian Civil War, they sent 70,000 men to support the Whites alongside the Allies, and refused to leave until they were defeated.
Britain and the USA stopped trusting Japan.
The flow of Japanese immigrants to the USA increased substantially.
They were faced with fear and discrimination.
The 1924 Immigration Act discriminated against Japan by making it the only country not to be allowed any quota of immigrants into the USA.
It changed its foreign policy to internationalism.
It sought to develop Japan's economy via peaceful means.
It sought trade with the USA and economic advancement in China within the framework of international agreement.
This was pushed by ambassador Shidehara Kijuro.
Several international agreements were signed to form the Washington Treaty System during the Washington Conference of 1921:
Four-Power Treaty: Britain, USA, France, and Japan, to protect its possessions in the Pacific.
Nine-Power Treaty: China, Belgium, Italy, Netherlands, and Portugal + four powers. Sought to respect Chinese independence.
Five-Power Naval Treaty: restricted competition in battleships and aircraft carriers by setting a ratio of 5:5:3 to UK, USA, and Japan. 1.75 to France and Italy. Japan had to relinquish plans of an Imperial Navy.
A fragile democracy
The system no longer inspired respect because of financial scandals and the parties' links to big businesses.
There was also fear of left-wing radicalism.
Opposition to Shidehara's internationalism and the growing influence of the military on foreign policy
Conservatives and the army questioned Shidehara's foreign policy, they believed it to be a betrayal of Japan's interests.
The population wanted to see Japan as the leader of Asia.
The US imposed a limitation on Asian immigration, which offended the Japanese.
A growing economic crisis
In 1921, a strike paralyzed Japan's docks.
There was a large division between big businesses and farmers.
Then came the Great Depression in 1929.
The Japanese government turned to repression instead of democracy.
China was a very weak and unstable country.
By the 19th century, it was a semi-colonial country.
They had been opened forcibly for trade by the West.
They lost the Opium Wars against Britain.
They lost the Sino-Japanese War, which was fought for influence over Korea.
In 1911, a revolution toppled the Manchu dynasty, and the warlords fought against each other.
In the 1920s, the two main parties had a strong rivalry.
Guomindang Nationalist Party, led by Jiang Jieshi.
Communist Party of China.
On the other hand, Japan wanted to become equal to the West.
This involved having colonies.
