Psych: unit 1 exam

sensorimotor stage

- 0-2 years

- object permanence

- goal directed behavior

advantages of Pre- Operational stage

2-7 years

-symbolic thinking

- transformation

- reversibility

disadvantages of pre- operational

disadvantages

- egocentrism: only thinking from ur POV

- Animism: human traits to table

- Centration: think abt one thing at once

Concrete operational

7-12

- conservation: change in appearance doesn't equal change in properties

- classification: group things appropriately

Formal operational

12+

- abstract thinking

- idealistic thinking

schema

idea of what something is and how it should act

Assimilation +example

1. fit new info into existing schema

2. child thinks that cat is a dog because they both of four legs and fur

accommodation + example

1. Changing or creating new schemas to fit new info into

2. Child makes new schema of a cat after learning cat and dog aren't the same

biopsychosocial model

describes how biological, psychological and social factors interact to influence development

Types of psychological development

Emotional, Social and cognitive

whats emotional development

changes in how you experience and express different feelings

social development

Changes in your relationship with others

cognitive development

changes in brain functional and mental ability

what's plasticity?

ability to change brains shape in response to experiences

what's maturation?

biological programmed process of growth

what are critical periods

time frames in which a skill or function MUST be learnt during, if not it may never develop

what are sensitive periods

period of time which you are more responsive to experiences but you can still develop skills outside of sensitive period

ASD (autism) symptoms + definition

disorder that effects the way people communicate and interact with others in the world

symptoms: difficulty with social interactions

social communication problems

restricted/ repetitive behavior

ADHD symptoms + definition

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder involves pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive-impulsive behavior that adversely effects development and everyday functioning

symptoms: Inattention

Hyperactivity

Impulsivity

Neurotypicality

term used to describe individuals who display neurological and cognitive functioning in a way that is typical or expected

Neurodivergent

individuals who gave a variation in neurological development and functioning

Neurodiversity

Variation in neurological development and functioning within and between groups of people

adaptive

being able to adjust to the environment appropriately and function effectively

Maladaptive

being unable to adapt to the environment appropriately and function effectively

integrity

the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding the honest reporting of all results and information

justice

the moral obligation to ensure there is fair consideration of competing claims, no unfair burden on a particular group, and fair distribution of benefits and access

benefiance

the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising risks and harms involved

non - malefciance

avoiding causation of harm. if necessary, any resulting harm should not be disproportionate to the benefits.

respect

consideration of the value of living things, regarding beliefs, customs, cultural heritage and capacity to make decisions

debriefing

participants must leave understanding the aim, results, and conclusion, and counselling is provided to ensure no lasting harm

use of deception in research

concealing the true purpose of the experiment when knowledge of it would effect validity of results. only permissable if the benefits outweigh the risks

withdrawl rights

participants can discontinue their involvement at any time, without penalty, and without giving a reason

informed consent

Participants understand the nature, purpose, and risks involved before agreeing to partake. If under 18 or unable to make informed decisions, their guardians can consent for them.

voluntary participation

no coercion or pressure is put on a participant to participate in an experiment and they freely choose to be involved

confidentialy

the privacy, protection and security of a participants personal information and the anonymity of individuals results

Random sampling

Every member of the population has equal chance of being selected

IV

variable that is changed

DV

variable that is being measured

Stratified sampling

ensuring subgroups of a characteristic is represented in the sample in the same proportions as it is in the populations

What is and sample in an experiment

Smaller group of people taken from the population that participate in the study

What is the population in an experiment

Entire group of people the researcher is interested in

Secure attachment

- uses carer as a safebase

- feels comfortable exploring room

- cries when carer leaves, seeks physical contact upon return

- consistently responsive parents

Insecure avoidant attachment

- Rarely cry when carer leaves

- ignore caregiver when returns

- due to abuse or neglect

Insecure resistant attachment

- anxious when caregiver is around

- becomes VERY upset when separated

- due to non responsive caregiver

Independent Variable (IV)

Variable being manipulated by the experimenter to measure its effect on the DV.

Dependent Variable (DV)

Variable that is measured to show any effect of the IV.

Controlled Variable

Variables that must be held constant to remove potential effects on DV.

Operationalising Variables

Putting variables into as much detail as possible, including clear measurement of the DV and clear manipulation of the IV over time.

Random Allocation

All participants have an equal chance of getting chosen for each group.

Non-random Allocation

Participants do not have an equal chance of getting chosen for each group.

Stratified Sampling

Split population according to characteristics, calculate the proportion of each characteristic in the population, and take a sample in proportion.

Convenience Sampling

Easiest group for researcher to obtain; non-random.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Between Subjects Design

Each participant provides one data point. Advantages: No order effect. Limitations: Individual participant differences.

Within Subjects Design

Every participant does every condition. Provides 2+ data points. Advantages: No individual participant differences. Limitations: Order effects.

Mixed Design

Sample separated into 2+ groups. Each participant only does one condition but provides 2+ data points due to pre- and post-test.

Internal Validity

Is high when tools and procedures in the study measure what the researcher is trying to measure.

External Validity

Whether results can accurately be applied to the rest of the population.

Repeatability

Study is repeatable if it is replicated under identical conditions and produces the same results.

Reproducibility

Study is replicated under different conditions and produces similar results.

Extraneous Variables

May cause an effect on DV which is not IV.

Confounding Variables

An extraneous variable that does affect the DV and is not the IV. Has a systematic (not random) effect on DV.

Participant Related Variables

Differences between people such as characteristics or abilities that could effect DV in unwanted ways.

Order Effect

Order of conditions affect results (being tired in second test, or do better second time due to practice).

Placebo Effect

Participants beliefs cause change in results (not voluntary).

Experimenter Effect

Researchers beliefs have unwanted effect on results.

Demand Characteristics

Participant changes their behavior due to knowledge of experiment, aim, or variable (voluntary).

Situational Variables

Procedures/instructions given to participants are different for each individual or group, or all environment factors not the same for each group.

Counterbalancing

Prevents order effect by splitting sample in half; Half does A then B, other half does B then A.

Single Blind Procedure

Participants are not aware if they receive treatment or not; manages placebo effect.

Double Blind Procedure

Both participants and experimenters are unaware of who receives the treatment; manages experimenter effect.

Standardisation

Make instructions, procedure, and environment the same for everyone.

Deception

Lie about what's being measured. Only works if lie not harmful, actual DV is hard to guess, and must reveal post-experiment.

Qualitative Data

Data represented with descriptions.

Quantitative Data

Data represented with numbers.

Primary Data

Data collected by the researcher.

Secondary Data

Data collected by someone other than the researcher or team.

Scientific Evidence

Results obtained by a controlled experiment or study following scientific method; Shows effect of an IV on DV, either directly or indirectly.

Non-Scientific Evidence

Encompasses evidence not obtained by a controlled experiment or study following scientific method. Includes opinion and anecdote.

Bar Graph

Bars don't touch Y axis or each other; No continuation between one category and the next.

Line Graph

Shows how one variable changes as another variable changes; Variables on X axis are continuous.

Random Errors

Chance factors or variation; Unknown or uncontrolled factors affect the measurement; Effect precision; degree of error varies each time.

Systematic Errors

Factor that consistently favors one condition; Associated with a flaw in some aspect of the research design; Same degree of error each time (consistent); Effect accuracy.

Personal Error

Human Errors (miscalculations, observer error-misreading a score).

Accuracy

How close measurement is to the true value of quantity being measured.

Precision

How closely a set of measurements agree with each other.

Uncertainty

Lack of exact knowledge of value and quantity.

Generalisations

statements that suggest the results of a study could be applied to all members of the population

how findings can apply to situations outside experiment

implications of the findings.

Ideas for future research

• All research can provide a basis for future research into the same or similar ideas.

• A change to one of the following elements of the research is suggested:

  • IV

  • DV

  • Population

  • Measurement method

Beneficence

Maximizing benefits and minimising harm

non-maleficence

• avoiding causing harm

• Benefits outweigh any harm caused

justice

• Everyone has the same opportunities

• Fair consideration of competing claims

• E.g giving control group the option to take the drug after trial if it is good

integrity

• Honestly reporting all findings

• Commitment to knowledge and understanding

respect

• consideration of the value of living things. regarding beliefs, customs and cultural heritage and capacity to make decisions

Phrenology

Study of the shapes and size of the human skull to determine personality and mental functioning based on the concept of 'mind organs'.

Brain Ablation

Destruction and surgical removal of a region of brain tissue used to treat neurological and psychological disorders.

Brain Lesioning

Disruption or damage to normal brain structure or function, either surgically created or resulting from illness.

Split Brain Experiment

Experiment involving severing the corpus callosum to study the independent function of each hemisphere.

Hindbrain

Includes the cerebellum (balance, movement memories), medulla (automatic functions), and pons (sleep, arousal).