Psych: unit 1 exam

sensorimotor stage

- 0-2 years

- object permanence

- goal directed behavior

advantages of Pre- Operational stage

2-7 years

-symbolic thinking

- transformation

- reversibility

disadvantages of pre- operational

disadvantages

- egocentrism: only thinking from ur POV

- Animism: human traits to table

- Centration: think abt one thing at once

Concrete operational

7-12

- conservation: change in appearance doesn't equal change in properties

- classification: group things appropriately

Formal operational

12+

- abstract thinking

- idealistic thinking

schema

idea of what something is and how it should act

Assimilation +example

1. fit new info into existing schema

2. child thinks that cat is a dog because they both of four legs and fur

accommodation + example

1. Changing or creating new schemas to fit new info into

2. Child makes new schema of a cat after learning cat and dog aren't the same

biopsychosocial model

describes how biological, psychological and social factors interact to influence development

Types of psychological development

Emotional, Social and cognitive

emotional development

changes in how you experience and express different feelings

social development

Changes in your relationship with others

cognitive development

changes in brain functional and mental ability

plasticity

ability to change brains shape in response to experiences

maturation

biological programmed process of growth

critical periods

time frames in which a skill or function MUST be learnt during, if not it may never develop

sensitive periods

period of time which you are more responsive to experiences but you can still develop skills outside of

Neurotypicality

term used to describe individuals who display neurological and cognitive functioning in a way that is typical or expected

Neurodivergent

individuals who gave a variation in neurological development and functioning

Neurodiversity

Variation in neurological development and functioning within and between groups of people

adaptive

being able to adjust to the environment appropriately and function effectively

Maladaptive

being unable to adapt to the environment appropriately and function effectively

debriefing

participants must leave understanding the aim, results, and conclusion, and counselling is provided to ensure no lasting harm

deception

concealing the true purpose of the experiment when knowledge of it would effect validity of results. only permissable if the benefits outweigh the risks

withdrawl rights

participants can discontinue their involvement at any time, without penalty, and without giving a reason

informed consent

Participants understand the nature, purpose, and risks involved before agreeing to partake. If under 18 or unable to make informed decisions, their guardians can consent for them.

voluntary participation

no coercion or pressure is put on a participant to participate in an experiment and they freely choose to be involved

confidentialy

the privacy, protection and security of a participants personal information and the anonymity of individuals results

Random sampling

Every member of the population has equal chance of being selected

DV

variable that is being measured

Stratified sampling

ensuring subgroups of a characteristic is represented in the sample in the same proportions as it is in the populations

sample

Smaller group of people taken from the population that participate in the study

population

Entire group of people the researcher is interested in

Secure attachment

- uses carer as a safebase

- feels comfortable exploring room

- cries when carer leaves, seeks physical contact upon return

- consistently responsive parents

Insecure avoidant attachment

- Rarely cry when carer leaves

- ignore caregiver when returns

- due to abuse or neglect

Insecure resistant attachment

- anxious when caregiver is around

- becomes VERY upset when separated

- due to non responsive caregiver

Controlled Variable

Variables that must be held constant to remove potential effects on DV.

Operationalising Variables

Putting variables into as much detail as possible, including clear measurement of the DV and clear manipulation of the IV over time.

Random Allocation

All participants have an equal chance of getting chosen for each group.

Non-random Allocation

Participants do not have an equal chance of getting chosen for each group.

Stratified Sampling

Split population according to characteristics, calculate the proportion of each characteristic in the population, and take a sample in proportion.

Convenience Sampling

Easiest group for researcher to obtain; non-random.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Between Subjects Design

Each participant provides one data point. Advantages: No order effect. Limitations: Individual participant differences.

Within Subjects Design

Every participant does every condition. Provides 2+ data points. Advantages: No individual participant differences. Limitations: Order effects.

Mixed Design

Sample separated into 2+ groups. Each participant only does one condition but provides 2+ data points due to pre- and post-test.

Internal Validity

Is high when tools and procedures in the study measure what the researcher is trying to measure.

External Validity

Whether results can accurately be applied to the rest of the population.

Repeatability

replicated under identical conditions and produces the same results.

Reproducibility

Study is replicated under different conditions and produces similar results.

Participant Related Variables

Differences between people such as characteristics or abilities that could effect DV in unwanted ways.

Order Effect

Order of conditions affect results (being tired in second test, or do better second time due to practice).

Placebo Effect

Participants beliefs cause change in results (not voluntary).

Experimenter Effect

Researchers beliefs have unwanted effect on results.

Demand Characteristics

Participant changes their behavior due to knowledge of experiment, aim, or variable (voluntary).

Situational Variables

Procedures/instructions given to participants are different for each individual or group, or all environment factors not the same for each group.

Counterbalancing

Prevents order effect by splitting sample in half; Half does A then B, other half does B then A.

Single Blind Procedure

Participants are not aware if they receive treatment or not; manages placebo effect.

Double Blind Procedure

Both participants and experimenters are unaware of who receives the treatment; manages experimenter effect.

Standardisation

Make instructions, procedure, and environment the same for everyone.

Deception

Lie about what's being measured. Only works if lie not harmful, actual DV is hard to guess, and must reveal post-experiment.

Primary Data

Data collected by the researcher.

Secondary Data

Data collected by someone other than the researcher or team.

Scientific Evidence

Results obtained by a controlled experiment or study following scientific method; Shows effect of an IV on DV, either directly or indirectly.

Non-Scientific Evidence

Encompasses evidence not obtained by a controlled experiment or study following scientific method. Includes opinion and anecdote.

Bar Graph

Bars don't touch Y axis or each other; No continuation between one category and the next.

Line Graph

Shows how one variable changes as another variable changes; Variables on X axis are continuous.

Random Errors

Chance factors or variation; Unknown or uncontrolled factors affect the measurement; Effect precision; degree of error varies each time.

Systematic Errors

Factor that consistently favors one condition; Associated with a flaw in some aspect of the research design; Same degree of error each time (consistent); Effect accuracy.

Personal Error

Human Errors (miscalculations, observer error-misreading a score).

Accuracy

How close measurement is to the true value of quantity being measured.

Precision

How closely a set of measurements agree with each other.

Uncertainty

Lack of exact knowledge of value and quantity.

Generalisations

statements that suggest the results of a study could be applied to all members of the population

how findings can apply to situations outside experiment

implications of the findings.

Ideas for future research

• All research can provide a basis for future research into the same or similar ideas.

• A change to one of the following elements of the research is suggested:

  • IV

  • DV

  • Population

  • Measurement method

Beneficence

Maximizing benefits and minimising harm

non-maleficence

• avoiding causing harm

• Benefits outweigh any harm caused

justice

• Everyone has the same opportunities

• Fair consideration of competing claims

• E.g giving control group the option to take the drug after trial if it is good

integrity

• Honestly reporting all findings

• Commitment to knowledge and understanding

respect

• consideration of the value of living things. regarding beliefs, customs and cultural heritage and capacity to make decisions

Phrenology

Study of the shapes and size of the human skull to determine personality and mental functioning based on the concept of 'mind organs'.

Brain Ablation

Destruction and surgical removal of a region of brain tissue used to treat neurological and psychological disorders.

Brain Lesioning

Disruption or damage to normal brain structure or function, either surgically created or resulting from illness.

Split Brain Experiment

• severing the corpus callosum to study the independent function of each hemisphere.

Hindbrain

• cerebellum (balance, movement memories),

• medulla (automatic functions),

• pons (sleep, arousal).

Forebrain

• hypothalamus (regulates internal environment),

• thalamus (directs sensory and motor signals)

• cerebrum (learning, memory, thinking).

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for reasoning, problem-solving, personality (prefrontal cortex), and motor movements (primary motor cortex).

Broca's Area

Located in the left hemisphere, it coordinates muscle movements required for fluent speech production.

Parietal Lobe

Involved in attention, spatial reasoning, and processing sensory information (primary somatosensory cortex).

Occipital Lobe

Devoted to the sense of vision

has primary visual cortex.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in memory, emotional response to sensory information, facial recognition, and object identification. Contains the primary auditory cortex and Wernicke's area.

Wernicke's Area

Located in the left hemisphere, responsible for comprehension and interpreting sounds of human speech.

Hemispheric Specialization

The concept that the left hemisphere controls language and logical reasoning, while the right hemisphere handles non-verbal tasks, spatial thinking, and artistic abilities.

Computerised Tomography (CT)

A structural neuroimaging technique that takes 2D X-rays to show brain structure.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A structural neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic and radio fields to take detailed 2D & 3D images.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A functional neuroimaging technique that involves radioactive glucose injected into the body to indicates areas of brain activity.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A functional neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic and radio fields to track O₂ levels and record brain activity.

Dendrites

Detect and receive information from other neurons and transmit it into the soma.

Axon

Transmits neural information away from the soma to other neurons or cells.