Unit 2 Part 1: Cognition

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101 Terms

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Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

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Cocktail Party Effect

Attending to mentions of one names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments

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__________ is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes

Attention

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Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

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Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment

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Perceptual Set

Set of mental tendencies and assumptions that affect top down, what we see, hear, taste, feel, and see

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Schema

A knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in ones life

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Expectations

Contexts, cultures, motivation, and emotions influence our interpretation of events and behaviors

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Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

Emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

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Figure-ground Perception

Tendency to organize the visual field into objects (figures) that stand apart from surroundings (ground)

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Closure

Filling in missing information from the perceptual array by closing in gaps

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Similarity

Grouping things on the basis of how similar they are to on another

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Proximity

Group things based on how close they are to one another

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Convergence

Retinal images combined by brain

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Depth perception

Ability to see in 3 dimensions and also to judge distance

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Visual Cliff

Lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

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Monocular Cues

Depth cues available to each eye seperately

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Interposition

If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

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Texture gradient

When the texture of a surface receding in the distance changes in clarity, blurring at further distances

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Linear perspective

Produced by apparent converging of parallel lines in the distance

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Stroboscopic Movement

Illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing rapid series of slightly varying still images

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Phi phenomenon

Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

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Autokinetic Effect

Illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room

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Shape Constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. (form of perceptual constancy)

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Color Constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object (Form of perceptual constancy

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Size Constancy

perceive an object as having an unchanging size, even while our distance from it varies.

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Protoypes

Generic image that represents something from your experience.

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Cognition

Mental activities having to do with thinking, remembering, communicating, etc.

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Metacognition

Cognition about our cognition

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Accommodation

Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood. Increases cognitive understanding of our world.

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Assimilation

Mental process that modifies new information to fit into existing schemas

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Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. it can be supported by aptitude 9ability to learn) but can also be fostered

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Executive Functions

Cognitive abilities that collectively enable us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

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Insight

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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Algorithms

Formulas or procedures that always guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied, to solve a particular type of problem.

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Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

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Mental set

The tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem, even if it isn’t working

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Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for information that supports preconceptions and ignore/distort contradictory evidence

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Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or judgments

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Belief perseverence

Sticking to our initial bias even after it’s been shown to be incorrect

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Framing

Wording a question or statement so that it evokes a desired response

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Recall

Retrieve information learned earlier (ie. Fill in the blank test)

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Recognition

Identifying items previously learned (ie. MCQ)

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Relearning

Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second/later time

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Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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Encoding

Getting info into our brain

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Storage

Retain the information

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Retrieval

Later get the info back out of our brain

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Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Additional rehearsal (overlearning) of verbal information increases retention

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Sensory Memory

Immediate brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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Working/short-term memory

Active processing and temporary storage of information that is being used for cognitive tasks, typically lasting from seconds to minutes.

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Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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Working Memory

Newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

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Central Executive

Memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

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Phonological loop

Memory component that briefly holds auditory information

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Visuospatial sketchpad

Memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space

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Chunking

Get more material into seven slots of working memory

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Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeat or review information to keep it from fading (ie. cramming)

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Hierarchies

Reviewing information and relating to it and relating it to info already in LTM

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Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice

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Testing Effecy

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.

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Shallow processig

Encoding on a basic level (based on structure, sound, or appearance of word)

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Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words

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Cognition Encoding Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieve of information

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Explicit/Declarative memory

Retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

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Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

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Implicit/Nondeclarative memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

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Prospective memory

Memory related to future actions

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Procedural memory

Includes memory for motor skills, operant conditioning, classical conditioning

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Semantic memory

Includes memory for language, facts, general knowledge, concepts

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Episodic memory

Includes memory for events, personal experiences

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Flashbulb Memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event

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Amygdala

Strengthens memories that have strong emotional associations and aid access and retrieval.

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Memory Consolidation

Process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories over a period of time

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Long-term potentiation

An increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

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Implicit memories

Without conscious recall; processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia

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Explicit memories

With conscious recall; processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes

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Retrieval Cues

Stimuli used to bring a memory to consciousness or behavior

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Priming

Technique for cuing implicit memories using associations, often without awareness

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Encoding Specifically Principle

More closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered

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Mood-congruent Memory

Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

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Interleaving

Retrieval strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

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Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially, and the first items in a list after a delay

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Misinformation Effect

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted

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Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form memories for new information. Common sign of Alzheimer’s disease.

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Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to remember information previously stored in memory

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Infantile amnesia

Inability of most adults to retrieve episodic memories before the age of three to four years

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TOT Phenomenon

Inability to recall a word, while knowing it is in memory (likely due to interference)

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Imagination Inflation

Memory distortion when someone imagines an event that never happened and then becomes more confident that it actually occurred

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Proactive interference

Prior learning disrupts recall of new information

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Retroactive Interference

When new information disrupts recall of old knowledge. (Such as your new computer password making it difficult for you to remember your old one)

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Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

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Reconsolidation

A process by which previously stored memories, when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again.

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Expectancy Bias

Tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one’s expectations

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Self-consistency Bias

Commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are.

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Misinformation Effect

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information, an example of suggestibility that can be used to create false or fabricated memories.

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Fabricated or False Memories

Evidence suggests we are susceptible to creating false memories of complete episodes

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Elizabeth Loftus

(UCI Professor) well known for her studies on false memories

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Source Amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source).

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Deja Vu

Eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger the retrieval of an earlier experience.