Unit 2 Part 1: Cognition

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail Party Effect

Attending to mentions of one names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments

__________ is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes

Attention

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment

Perceptual Set

Set of mental tendencies and assumptions that affect top down, what we see, hear, taste, feel, and see

Schema

A knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in ones life

Expectations

Contexts, cultures, motivation, and emotions influence our interpretation of events and behaviors

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

Emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Figure-ground Perception

Tendency to organize the visual field into objects (figures) that stand apart from surroundings (ground)

Closure

Filling in missing information from the perceptual array by closing in gaps

Similarity

Grouping things on the basis of how similar they are to on another

Proximity

Group things based on how close they are to one another

Convergence

Retinal images combined by brain

Depth perception

Ability to see in 3 dimensions and also to judge distance

Visual Cliff

Lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Monocular Cues

Depth cues available to each eye seperately

Interposition

If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer

Texture gradient

When the texture of a surface receding in the distance changes in clarity, blurring at further distances

Linear perspective

Produced by apparent converging of parallel lines in the distance

Stroboscopic Movement

Illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing rapid series of slightly varying still images

Phi phenomenon

Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Autokinetic Effect

Illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room

Shape Constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. (form of perceptual constancy)

Color Constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object (Form of perceptual constancy

Size Constancy

perceive an object as having an unchanging size, even while our distance from it varies.

Protoypes

Generic image that represents something from your experience.

Cognition

Mental activities having to do with thinking, remembering, communicating, etc.

Metacognition

Cognition about our cognition

Accommodation

Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood. Increases cognitive understanding of our world.

Assimilation

Mental process that modifies new information to fit into existing schemas

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. it can be supported by aptitude 9ability to learn) but can also be fostered

Executive Functions

Cognitive abilities that collectively enable us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

Insight

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Algorithms

Formulas or procedures that always guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied, to solve a particular type of problem.

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

Mental set

The tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem, even if it isn’t working

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for information that supports preconceptions and ignore/distort contradictory evidence

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or judgments

Belief perseverence

Sticking to our initial bias even after it’s been shown to be incorrect

Framing

Wording a question or statement so that it evokes a desired response

Recall

Retrieve information learned earlier (ie. Fill in the blank test)

Recognition

Identifying items previously learned (ie. MCQ)

Relearning

Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second/later time

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Encoding

Getting info into our brain

Storage

Retain the information

Retrieval

Later get the info back out of our brain

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Additional rehearsal (overlearning) of verbal information increases retention

Sensory Memory

Immediate brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Working/short-term memory

Active processing and temporary storage of information that is being used for cognitive tasks, typically lasting from seconds to minutes.

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Working Memory

Newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

Central Executive

Memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Phonological loop

Memory component that briefly holds auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

Memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space

Chunking

Get more material into seven slots of working memory

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeat or review information to keep it from fading (ie. cramming)

Hierarchies

Reviewing information and relating to it and relating it to info already in LTM

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice

Testing Effecy

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.

Shallow processig

Encoding on a basic level (based on structure, sound, or appearance of word)

Deep processing

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words

Cognition Encoding Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieve of information

Explicit/Declarative memory

Retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

Implicit/Nondeclarative memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Prospective memory

Memory related to future actions

Procedural memory

Includes memory for motor skills, operant conditioning, classical conditioning

Semantic memory

Includes memory for language, facts, general knowledge, concepts

Episodic memory

Includes memory for events, personal experiences

Flashbulb Memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event

Amygdala

Strengthens memories that have strong emotional associations and aid access and retrieval.

Memory Consolidation

Process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories over a period of time

Long-term potentiation

An increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Implicit memories

Without conscious recall; processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia

Explicit memories

With conscious recall; processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli used to bring a memory to consciousness or behavior

Priming

Technique for cuing implicit memories using associations, often without awareness

Encoding Specifically Principle

More closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered

Mood-congruent Memory

Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Interleaving

Retrieval strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially, and the first items in a list after a delay

Misinformation Effect

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form memories for new information. Common sign of Alzheimer’s disease.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to remember information previously stored in memory

Infantile amnesia

Inability of most adults to retrieve episodic memories before the age of three to four years

TOT Phenomenon

Inability to recall a word, while knowing it is in memory (likely due to interference)

Imagination Inflation

Memory distortion when someone imagines an event that never happened and then becomes more confident that it actually occurred

Proactive interference

Prior learning disrupts recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

When new information disrupts recall of old knowledge. (Such as your new computer password making it difficult for you to remember your old one)

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Reconsolidation

A process by which previously stored memories, when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again.

Expectancy Bias

Tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one’s expectations

Self-consistency Bias

Commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are.

Misinformation Effect

Occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information, an example of suggestibility that can be used to create false or fabricated memories.

Fabricated or False Memories

Evidence suggests we are susceptible to creating false memories of complete episodes

Elizabeth Loftus

(UCI Professor) well known for her studies on false memories

Source Amnesia

Faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source).

Deja Vu

Eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger the retrieval of an earlier experience.