Spoken Language Features

Back-Channelling

• A cooperative signal that provides feedback to the speaker to maintain conversation

  • ‘mm’ or ‘right’

Cooperative signals

• Signals which indicate that they agree or want to hear more

  • ‘ok’, ‘go on’, ‘yes’, ‘mm’

Deixis

• The reference to the speakers position in space or time, such as the pronouns ‘you’ or 'I’ in reference to objects such as

  • ‘that’, ‘this’, ‘there’, ‘tomorrow’, ‘the other day’

Elision

• Omission of sounds in connected each

  • ‘dunno’, ‘gonna’, ‘wanna’

Ellipsis

• Words which are omitted but understood

  • ‘Id like to go to the concert but I cant (go to the concert)’

False starts

• A non-fluence feature common in spontaneous speech where the speaker begins an utterance then self corrects and rephrases

  • ‘I’ll (.) I might go’

Fillers

• A non-fluency feature where an often meaningless word is inserted into speech from habit or thinking time

  • ‘right’, ‘well’, ‘you know’

Hedges

• Linguistic forms such as ‘I think’, ‘Im sure’, ‘You know’, ‘sort of’, which express the speaker’s uncertainty about a topic under discussion.

Micropauses

• A short unvoiced pause for a breath in an utterance, usually marked by a (.)

Monitoring devices

• A way of checking your own communicativeness (‘do you see what I mean’) or commenting on someone’s speech (‘you did not say that earlier’) and reviewing the conversation at any given time (‘we’re getting nowhere’)

Paralinguistic features

• Features which are non-verbal, but which accompany speech, usually things like laughter, or facial expressions.

Grice’s 4 maxims

• Quality - Truth within the conversation

• Quantity - Saying enough but not too much.

• Manner - Being clear in what you say.

• Relevance - Not talking about irrelevant things pertaining to conversation.

Flouting a maxim

• Flouting a maxim involves deliberately breaking it to convey a deeper meaning or implication.

Violating a maxim

• Violating a maxim means failing to adhere to it, often unintentionally or due to a lack of knowledge or clarity.

Holding the floor

To "hold the floor" in a conversation means that a person has the opportunity to speak without interruption, maintaining control of the discussion at that moment.

Asymmetrical power

• Asymmetrical power in a conversation refers to an imbalance where one participant holds more influence or authority than the other, affecting how ideas are expressed, received, and negotiated.

Face theory - Levinson, Brown, Goffman

• It emphasizes how people manage their public persona and navigate social dynamics, particularly through face-saving strategies to maintain or protect their own and others' social identities during communication.

Positive face

• Positive face refers to an individual's desire to be liked, respected, and accepted by others.

Negative face

• Negative face refers to an individual's desire for autonomy, freedom, and the ability to act without being imposed upon.

Face Threatening Acts

• Face-threatening acts (FTAs) are behaviours or statements that can potentially harm someone's self-image or social identity

Threatening someone’s positive face

• Criticism: Telling someone their work is subpar can undermine their sense of competence.

• Insults: Making derogatory comments about someone's appearance or abilities attacks their self-esteem.

• Rejection: Declining an invitation or expressing disinterest in someone can make them feel unwanted.

• Public embarrassment: Sharing a private failure or mistake in front of others can diminish their social standing.

• Neglecting compliments: Failing to acknowledge or appreciate someone's efforts can make them feel unvalued.

Threatening someone’s negative face

• Making demands: Asking someone to do something they don’t want to do can impose on their autonomy.

• Interrupting: Cutting someone off while they are speaking can signal a lack of respect for their freedom to express themselves.

• Overly personal questions: Asking intrusive questions can invade someone's privacy and make them feel uncomfortable.

• Forcing a commitment: Pressuring someone to make a decision or commitment can restrict their freedom of choice.

• Criticizing their choices: Disapproving of someone’s personal decisions can imply they are not in control of their own life.

Positive politeness

• Enhance someone’s positive face

• Emphasises friendliness, warmth, and social connection.

  • Expressions of approval

  • Compliments

  • Gestures that show understanding

Negative politeness

• Aims to minimise threats to someone’s negative face.

  • Indirect requests

  • Hedging

  • Using formal language to avoid imposing