Optimistic Thinking

What is the concept and core idea of the learning BV perspective on OT?

concept - learned optimism (Seligman, 1991)

core idea - optimism is a skill dvlped through learned experiences

What is the concept and core idea of the personality trait approach on OT?

concept - dispositional optimism (Carver and Scheier, 1985)

core idea - a stable tendency to expect positive outcomes, influenced by personality traits.

What is the concept and core idea of the cog approach on OT?

Concept: Hope Theory (Snyder, 2002).

Core Idea: Optimism as goal-directed thinking inv agency and pathways.

What did Seligman develop?

•concept of learned optimism, building on the learned helplessness model

What is learned optimism rooted in?

in Learning Theory, learned optimism explores how explanatory styles shape our reactions to life events.

What does Seligman explain about helplessness?

arises when people encounter situations they cannot control. Over time, they learn to expect events to remain uncontrollable.

When does learned helplessness occur?

when individuals attribute their failures to:

•Internal factors (e.g., "It's all my fault."),

•Stable factors (e.g., "This will never change.)

•Global factors (e.g., "This affects every part of my life.").

What is learned optimism?

How we expl neg events infl our emotional resps and bv

What are the pessimistic expls for why bad things happen to us?

•atributing problems to internal, stable, and global causes can lead to passivity and pessimism

What are optimistic explanations for why bad things happen?

Attributing problems to external, temporary, and specific causes fosters resilience and problem-solving (e.g., "This is temporary and not entirely my fault. Other areas of my life are fine.").

What did Seligman propose?

indvs fall along a continuum from extreme pessimism to extreme optimism

While life experiences may be similar, it is our explanatory style—how we interpret events—that determines whether we respond with optimism or pessimism (Seligman, 1991).

What does optimistic thinking do?

empowers indvs to overcome challenges, while pessimistic thinking can lead to passivity and helplessness

What does Seligman highlight about pessimism?

often arises more naturally, as maintaining confidence and positivity during setbacks requires deliberate effort.

What is at the heart of pessimism?

learned helplessness—a mindset where indvs feel powerless to infl events or change their circumstances.

What do some indivs exhibit?

resilience, which Seligman attributes to their optimistic explanatory style - individuals view setbacks as temporary, specific, and external.

What does Seligmans theory of optimism centre on?

idea that optimism is not inherent but can be learned by understanding and reframing our thoughts using the ABC model.

What is the ABC model?

Adversity (A) - Any challenging or neg event that we encounter sa losing a job or failing exam.

Beliefs (B) - How we interpret or think about the adversity. - These beliefs infl our emotional resp and bvs.

Consequences (C) - emotional and behavioural outcomes resulting from our beliefs.

•Neg belief leads to discouragement and inaction.

•Pos belief fosters resilience and proactive problem-solving.

What is crucial in the ABC model?

formation of beliefs

By reframing how we perceive adversity, we can infl the outcomes we experience.

When did the interest in dispositional optimism emerge?

from Carver and Scheier’s (1981) behavioural self-regulation model.

What is optimism considered acc to the dispositional optimism?

a stable dispositional trait that infl indvs actions based on their goals and motivations.

How is optimism assessed in DO?

through the extent to which indvs:

Pursue their goals.

Remain focused on bridging the gap bt their current situation and desired outcomes.

What do dispositional optimists do?

Persist in striving toward their goals despite setbacks.

Maintain favourable expectations for future outcomes.

What do dispositional pessimists do?

Anticipate neg outcomes.

Are more likely to abandon their goals when faced with challenges (Carver & Scheier, 1985).

What does learned optimism inv?

using a pos explanatory style to interpret future events - Indvs attribute events to favourable causes

How does DO differ from LO?

They expect positive outcomes without necessarily explaining them - no thinking

Their optimism stems from an innate expectation rather than deliberate reasoning.

Who developed the hope theory and why?

Snyder (1994) to integrate aspects of optimism with goal achievement

What is hope defined as?

an indvs belief in their ability to achieve goals, combining motivation and planning

What is the hope theory grounded in?

Social Cog Psychology, focusing on how cog processes drive bv

What is the hope theory built on?

three interrelated components:

Goals, agency and pathways

What are goals in the hope theory?

anchors of hope — the desired outcomes indvs aim to achieve.

provide direction and structure to one’s motivation.

What does agency represent?

motivation and determination to pursue goals - high agency reflects confidence in achieving goals despite challenges.

1.Example beliefs:

1.“I energetically pursue my goals.”

2.“I meet the goals I set for myself.”

What do pathways refer to?

indv’s ability to identify multiple strategies/routes to achieve their goals - inc adaptability in generating alternative pathways when obstacles arise

1.Example beliefs:

1.“I can think of many ways to get out of a jam.”

2.“There are lots of ways around any problem.”

What did Snyder describe goals as? (2002)

mental targets individuals set, w/ a perceived probability of success.

What does hope do acc to Snyder (2002)?

bridges the gap bt certainty and uncertainty: - if success were guaranteed, hope would be unnecessary.

When is hope most active?

when goals are achievable but challenging.

What happens when you are low in hope?

Tend to focus on vague, singular goals.

Lack clear pathways and agency, often leading to reduced motivation.

What happens when you have high hope?

Set multiple, clear goals (typically around six, per Snyder).

Diversify their focus, reducing reliance on any single goal.

better equipped to adjust plans (pathways) when faced w/ obstacles

What is the Pathways component like acc to Peterson (2000)?

Pathways component is unique to Snyder’s Hope Theory and distinguishes it from traditional optimism theories

What does the hope theory highlight?

Hope is not just about wanting or expecting success - emphasises active planning and strategy-building to achieve goals.

What is hope thus like?

practical and action-oriented construct, driving indvs to plan and persist towards achievement