AP Psychology - Chapter 5

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively permanent information or behaviors

Habituation

Decrease in responsiveness with repeated or enduring exposure to a stimulus; learning to tune out a stimulus 

How is habituation like sensory adaptation?

involves a diminished response…but in this case, it’s a form of learning.

The process of learning associations is called conditioning. What are the two main forms?

Classical and Operant

Classical conditiong

• we learn by association

• often involuntary (i.e. Lightning often signals a crack of thunder, so we brace ourselves)

Operant conditioning

• we learn by reinforcement

• often voluntary (i.e. Saying 'please' gets us a reward, so we repeat the act of being polite)

What form of conditioning did Ivan Pavlov explore in his famous experiment?

classical conditioning

Who did Pavlov’s experiments pave way for?

• This laid the foundation for many of Behaviorist John B. Watson’s ideas

• urging psychologists to move away from mental processes, and to focus on observable behavior

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that elicits no association or response before conditioning

Ivan Pavlov’s experiment and use of a NS.

• To prove 'learning', Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus with food in the dog's mouth

  • Pavlov sounded a tone with food in the dog's mouth. The dog soon learned the link. Now, the tone alone caused salivation

Classical Conditioning note

It is a type of learning which an organism comes to associate a stimulus with another stimulus which then elicits a response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

something that naturally brings about a response without having to be learned

• Ex. Warm, perfectly baked, blueberry muffins…mmmm

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

• the reaction that occurs naturally in response to some stimuli

  • Ex. Salivating…When I smell freshly baked blueberry muffins

Example of how a NS would create a CS

Now insert a NS…Such as "Mr. Blue Sky" repeatedly just before introducing fresh-from-the-oven blueberry muffins, this makes a CS.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

is originally a NS that, after association with an UCS come to trigger a CR

Conditioned Response (CR)

• the learned response to the conditioned (formerly neutral) stimulus

  • Ex. I salivate as soon as I hear the song  "Mr. Blue Sky" because I now associate it with yummy, delicious, fresh blueberry muffins

Difference between UCR and CR

The UCR and CR are almost always the same response. The stimulus that elicits the response is the crucial difference

Classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. What does this mean?

• Higher order conditioning a new NS can become a new CS

  • This higher order conditions tend to be weaker but still has value and influence

5 Major Conditioning Processes

Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous recovery, Geralization, & Discrimination

Acquisition

• Initial learning Associating a NS with the UCS so that the NS begins triggers the CR

• Occurs Most readily when the NS is presented just before UCS (studies show about 0.5-1 sec is best)

Extinction

Diminished response which occurs if the CS appears repeatedly by itself without the (UCS)

Spontaneous recovery

The temporary reappearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other distinct stimuli

Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied…

objectively

How did Pavlov influence John B. Watson?

• Pavlov's work influenced John B. Watson's ideas about human emotion and behavior

  • Watson conditioned "Little Albert" to fear animals using a loud noise

What did the work that Watson and others did demonstrating emotional responses can be classically conditioned form?

• the basis of therapeutic interventions for many mental disorders

  • Today, classical conditioning techniques are used to help improve human health and well-being (from drug & food cravings, to eliminating fears, to immune response simply vis 'taste')

Conditioning can be aversive. What type of aversion is conditioning typically used to create?

taste aversions

One-trial learning

an association is acquired through just one pairing of the stimulus and response, and is not strengthened by further exposures

Edwin Guthrie

developed this idea and felt all condition was classical - he did not believe rewards/punishments reinforced behavior

Operant Learning

Learning to associate certain behavior/actions with consequences

Around the same time Pavlov was studying classical conditioning, which American Psychologist was studying learning?

Edward Thorndike was studying learning in cats…by placing them in a box

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences (reinforcing) became more likely, while those followed by unfavorable consequences (punishing) became less likely

Whos work did BF Skinner elaborate on?

Thorndike's , and he developed behavioral analysis, which revealed principles of behavior control

Operant Chamber

(aka Skinner box); a chamber containing a lever or button that an animal could manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of pressing during a specified time.

What serves as a reinforcement, depends on…

the subject, preferences, and the conditions.

Shaping

Reinforcers that guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior; a hint that they're on the right track

How do researches and animal trainers shape complex behaviors?

• By rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior, while ignoring all other responses

  • Ex. Dog learning to jump through fire hoop

 

Positive reinforcement

Adds a desirable stimulus to inforce frequency of a behavior

Negative Reinforcement

Reduces/removes an aversive stimulus to increase frequency of a behavior

Primary Reinforcer

• A reinforcing stimulus that is in and of itself rewarding; unlearned

  Ex. Filling biological needs - food, liquid, rest

Conditioned/Secondary Reinforcer

• A stimulus that is learned, or gains reinforcing power by being associated with a primary reinforcer

  Ex. A light that signals a food delivery to a rat

Continuous reinforcement

• a behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs - learning occurs rapidly, which is the best option for mastering a behavior

  • Unfortunately for researchers, extinction can occur rapidly too

intermittent/partial reinforcement

a response is sometimes reinforced, sometimes not - learning is slower to appear, but resistance to extinction is also greater.

2 kinds of Reinforcement schedules

1. continuous reinforcement schedule

2. intermittent/partial reinforcement schedule

Fixed ratio schedule

Reinforces a response after a set number of responses [every so many]

Variable ratio schedule

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable/random number of responses

Fixed interval schedule

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed [every so often]

Variable interval schedule

Reinforces a response at varied/unpredictable time intervals

Four schedules of partial reinforcement

Fixed-ratio schedule, variable-ratio schedule, fixed-interval schedule & variable-interval schedule

Punishment

administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior

Positive punishment

adds an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior

Negative punishment

removes a rewarding stimulus to decrease a behavior, sometimes referred to as 'omission training'

Superstitious behaviours

• occur when 'consequences' reinforce unrelated behavior

  • We cling to habits because we don't want to risk messing up that good thing that happened, despite knowing how irrational the practice is!

What is an animal’s capacity for conditioning limited by? What is the result of this?

• biological constraints

  • so learning some associations is easier than learning other

What may animals display during training?

instinctive drift - the tendency for a learned behavior to revert back to biologically predisposed patterns

Biological preparedness

Biological predisposition to learn some association faster than others

John Garcia

studied taste aversion in humans and animals and found it to be strangely powerful/lasting

The Garcia Effect

Humans/animals stay away from food that made them sick for a long time

Cognitive map

a mental representation of spatial environments and semantic networks of information; tied to schema

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Gestalt Psychologist, Wolfgang Kohler, devoted years to studying what aspects of learning?

cognitive

Insight

sudden realization of solution (typically w/o much trial-and-error); an a-ha moment

• We may puzzle over a problem, and then suddenly, the pieces fall together and we perceive a solution

Two types of learning motivation

Extrinsic & intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation

learning/doing in hopes of receiving a reward

Intrinsic motivation

 learning/doing for personal satisfaction

Three types of social learning

Social Learning theory, Vicarious conditioning, & Modeling

Social Learning Theory

States that acquiring new skills information can occur by observation

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing other's interactions with a stimulus/consequences, and then modifying own behavior

Modeling

• the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

  • We learn our language by observing and imitating others!!

  • Studies show that the more similar a model is the more likely the behavior is learned

Who did pioneering research on observational behavior?

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura Bobo Doll experiment

in the early 1960s involved how we learn by watching and imitating, rather than learning associations between events

What have our frontal lobes demonstrated?

the ability to mirror the activity of another's brain

• These mirror neurons provide a neural basis for everyday imitation, empathy, and observational learning

Applications of observational learning

Prosocial behavior & antisocial behavior

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Antisocial behavior

Negative, destructive, unsympathetic behavior

How is observational learning beneficial from an evolutionary perspective?

• without the ability to learn by watching others, people would have to 'learn things the hard way' which doesn't always lead to optimal survival chances

  • Thus, models can have both positive and negative effects on us

What feelings does learning influence?

our sense of empowerment versus helplessness

Learned helplessness

Feeling a person (or animal) learns when they are unable to control their environment while exposed to repeated aversive events

What does losing control provoke an out pour of?

stress hormones (including cortisol), which increase blood pressure and decrease immune response