Psychology - Relationships

Define sexual selection

An evolutionary explanation of partner preference. Attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over succeeding generations of offspring

What is Anisogamy?

Anisogamy refers to the differences between male and female sex cells. Male gametes are small, highly mobile and created continuously in vast numbers from puberty to old age, these do not require a great expenditure of energy to produce. Female gametes are relatively large, static, produced in intervals for a limited number of fertile years and require a huge investment of energy.

What is a consequence of anisogamy?

A consequence of anisogamy for mate selection is that there are many fertile men but few fertile women.

How does anisogamy dictate male’s optimum reproductive strategy?

Anisogamy dictates this through the minimal energy required to produce enough sperm to theoretically fertilise every woman on earth and the relative lack of post-coital responsibility the male carries

What is inter-sexual selection?

This is the preferred strategy of females - quality over quantity. Therefore, the female’s optimum mating strategy is to find a genetically fit partner who is able and willing to provide resources. This leaves males competing for the opportunity to mate with the fertile female.

What does Trivers say about inter-sexual selection?

Trivers emphasises, the female makes a greater investment of time, commitment and other resources before, during and after birth of her offspring. Women are often more choosy as the consequence of mating with the wrong male has a higher consequence.

What is Fishers ‘sexy sons hypothesis’?

Fisher argues a female mates with a male who has a desirable characteristic, and this ‘sexy’ trait is inherited by her son. This increases the likelihood that successive generations of females will mate with her offspring.

What is Intra-sexual selection?

This is the preferred strategy of males - quantity over quality. It refers to the competition between males to be able to mate with a female. The winner of the competition reproduces and gets to pass on to his offspring the characteristics that contributed to his victory.

What are the behavioural and psychological consequences on Intra-sexual selection?

For males to acquire females and protect them from competing males, they may benefit from behaving aggressively and perhaps thinking in particular ways. A behavioural consequence of this competition for fertile mates is a distinct preference for the youth

Outline and explain research support for preferences related to anisogamy

Buss carried out a survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries. He asked questions about various attributes. He found that female respondents placed greater value on resource-related characteristics whilst male respondents placed greater value on attributes that contributed to reproductive capacity. This supports predictions about partner preference derived from sexual selection theory and can be applied to different cultures.

Outline and explain research support for inter-sexual selection

Clark and Hatfield conducted an experiment in which they asked students to ask a person of the opposite sex if they’d like to sleep with them. Not a single female agreed whilst 75% of males agreed. This supports the evolutionary theory because it suggests that females are choosier than males in regards to selecting sexual partners.

How does this concept ignore social and cultural influences?

Partner preferences have been influences by changing social norms of sexual behaviour. For example, women’s greater role in the workplace means they’re no longer dependent on men to provide for them. Berecakei et al argue that social change has consequences for women’s mate preferences as they may no longer be resource-oriented.

Define self-disclosure

The process of revealing details and personal information about yourself to romantic partners to strengthen the bond.

What is the social penetration theory?

The reciprocal exchange of information between intimate partners. As they disclose more information to each other, romantic partners ‘penetrate’ more deeply into each other’s lives and gain a greater understanding of each other.

What is the breadth and depth of self disclosure?

As breadth and depth of self-disclosure increases in a relationship, the partners become more committed to each other. The process of revealing the right amount of information to your partner without risking damaging the relationship by saying ‘too much’. Eventually this information will be told.

What is the importance of reciprocity?

Reis and Shaver point out that there needs to be a reciprocal element to disclosure. The balance of self-disclosure between both partners will lead to a successful relationship with an increase of feelings of intimacy.

Outline studies that support self-disclosure.

Sprecher and Hendrick found strong correlations in heterosexual couples between level of satisfaction and self-disclosure.

Laurenceau et al found that self-disclosure is linked to higher levels of intimacy in long term married couples.

This increases the validity of the theory.

How does self-disclosure have real-world application?

Stafford found that 57% of gay men and women maintained self-disclosure in order to deepen their committed relationships. This has also been used in therapies to help couples create deeper and healthier bonds.

What are the cultural implications of this theory?

Tang et al reviewed the research literature regarding sexual self-disclosure. They found that men and women in the USA (individualist culture) self disclose significantly more sexual thoughts and feelings than men and women in China (collectivist culture). Self-disclosure is limited to couples in individualist cultures and cannot be generalised to other cultures.

What is the direct link between self-disclosure and satisfaction?

When couples are trying to repair to return their relationship to a previous satisfaction level, they often result in self disclosing to do so.

What is the matching hypothesis?

The belief that we do not select the most attractive person but, instead, are attracted to people who ‘match us’ in physical attractiveness.

What is the importance of physical attractiveness?

Shackelford and Larsen found that people with symmetrical faces are rate as more attractive as it’s a signal of genetic fitness. People are also attracted to neotenous features as they trigger a protective instinct. McNulty et al found that evidence that the initial attractiveness that brought partners together continued to be an important feature of relationships after marriage.

What is the halo effect?

The belief that good-looking people probably have these characteristics that make them even more attractive to us so we behave positively to them - self fulfilling prophecy. Dion et al found that physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people.

Outline and explain research support for the halo effect

Palmer and Peterson found that physically attractive people were rated more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. This has implications for the political process as politicians may be judged as suitable for office based on physical attractiveness.

What are the individual differences in this theory?

Towhey found that participants that scored highly on a sexist attitudes and behaviours questionnaire were more influenced by the physical attractiveness of the target when making a judgement on likeability. Low scorers were less sensitive to this influence. This shows effects of physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors.

Outline and explain research support for the matching hypothesis.

Feingold carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies and found a significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between romantic partners.

What are the roles of cultural influences?

Research shows that what is considered physically attractive is consistent across culture. Wheeler and Kim found that Korean and American students judged physically attractive people to have positive attributes. This shows a consistent belief across individualist and collectivist cultures

What is the research contradicting the matching hypothesis?

Taylor et al found that online daters sought meetings with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them. This contradicts the matching hypothesis.

What is the filter theory?

It states that a series of different factors progressively limits the range of available romantic partners to a smaller pool of possibilities.