Reading and Writing Acquisition

transactional phenomenon

reading is a… it is the process of going from the written to the spoken mode.

1 in 4

struggle to learn how to read, with 75% learning regardless of how they are taught.

14.4%

reading for pleasure gives children a ___ advantage in vocabulary and 9.9% advantage in maths compared to peers.

1 billion

entered the 21st century unable to read a book or sign their names.

pre-reading

experiencing books before being able to read them.

community impacts on acquisition

Heath - 1983: white communities have bigger emphasis on books whereas African communities focus on the tradition of oral storytelling.

Chall’s six developmental stages of reading

0 - pre reading

1 - initial reading

2 - confirmation and fluency’

3 - reading for learning

4 - multiplicity and complexity

5 - construction and reconstruction

pre reading

up to 6, pretend reading by turning pages. letter and word knowledge especially from their own names, recite alphabet,, can predict single words or stages in stories

initial reading

6-7, learn to associate graphemes to phonemes, can read simple texts containing frequently used words

confirmation and fluency stage

7-8, become more fluent in recognising and decoding words, gaining fluency, accuracy, speed and confidence

reading for learning

9-14, less time decoding more time on meanings and messages, read more in educational contexts for subjects other than literacy.

multiplicity and complexity

14-17, growing appreciation of different ideas and viewpoints, respond critically to texts

construction and reconstruction

18+, fluent reads able to decode hidden meanings and take apart texts.

phonics approach

encourages readers to break down words into individual graphemes and sound them out in order to read the whole word accurately.

look and say approach

encourages readers to identify familiar words as a whole.

stuart 1999

studied reading in London community where most students speak a Bengali dialect. compared two groups of five year old each taught using separate approaches. followed up to check test results in later years, concluded that phonics method benefited children more.

reading schemes

a series of books that are carefully written to support the process of learning to read. They teach the letter sounds and how to blend them as well as tricky words e.g. the, said, there, was

miscue

goodman 1965, when a child doesn’t read the text exactly as it appears on the printed page.

Kroll’s 4 stages of writing development

1 - preparatory stage

2 - consolidation stage

3 - differentiation stage

4 - integration stage

preparatory stage

18 months, developing motor skills and learning basics of the spelling system

consolidation stage

6-8 years, write in the same way they speak, colloquialisms, short declarative statements, familiar conjunctions, express ideas in the form of sentences without punctuation

differentiation stage

8-mid teens, aware of the differences between the conventions of spoken and written language, understand there are different genres, structure their work using written guides and frameworks, use more complex grammar and sentence structures, punctuation more accurate and consistent.

integration stage

mid teens +. writing more accurate with a wider vocab and more accurate spelling, style can change according to the audience and purpose, narrative and descriptive skills improve, develop a personal writing style.

creative approach

should be allowed to experiment creatively with language, without strict correction, using trial and error. by not focusing on accuracy we make children less afraid of making mistakes, raising their enjoyment and self-esteem

rule-based approach

suggests that when a child understands the conventions of writing progress will be more rapid and they will move on quickly to producing understandable, appropriate texts.

innateness

Chomsky’s LAD - he originally believed the language acquisition device contained rules of grammar. Later developed to mean a pre-disposition to acquiring language. Chomsky himself never investigated with actual children though.

behaviourism

Skinner believed that language is learned through operant conditioning using imitation, and reinforcement. pos and neg reinforcement from parents allow children to learn what is right and wrong.

cognitive theory

Piaget believed that we can learn concepts and then we learn the words to describe these concepts. Acquiring language comes as understanding of the world develops. Children are active learners who want to discover their environment. However, this doesn’t explain how people with learning difficulties are still linguistically fluent.

interactionism

suggested by Bruner and Vygotsky. Bruner suggests that parents create a scaffolding through CDS to help children learn language. Vygotsky furthered these ideas with the idea of a MKO being needed to push the child into their ZPD.

creative approach supporting A02

John Abbott chicken metaphor and We’re Writer Project

John Abbott

1999 - metaphor of free range chickens versus battery hens to describe different educational approaches, suggesting that more independent and creative learners might be the ones who eventually thrive. however this is limiting for advanced writers due to risk of underdevelopment.

Grainger

2003 - We’re Writer Project: many KS2 children perceived themselves to be weak writers and some of them, showed the early stages of a potential long-term negative disposition towards writing. project encourages creativity but this could give too much freedom for some students who thrive with more structured guidance and there are also challenges in assessing the work in a consistent and objective manner.

rule based approach supporting evidence

cognitive load theory - sweller 1988

behaviourism - skinner 1954

cognitive load theory

1988 - sweller: working memory has limited capacity so a rule-based approach allows students to focus working memory on producing understandable texts. students who receive direct, systematic teaching of writing conventions tend to write more clearly and effectively. However this doesn’t account for all cognitive processes involved in learning, as well as a limiting focus, long-term memory also plays crucial role in learning but isn't addressed.

skinner

behaviourism - 1954: learners benefit from repetitive, systematic instruction and practice, which helps solidify foundational skills.

britton

suggested that in schools, writing fulfils three purposes: building a relationship with the teacher, aiding learning by allowing children to organise and extend their knowledge, and categorising our own experiences.

expressive writing

the first type of writing children develop, it is first person and wholly concerned with the self, as children explore their own identity.

poetic writing

literary writing such as stories and poems. This sort of writing is encouraged in early years, as it leads children to thing about the crafty of writing.

transactional writing

writing for a purpose, for example writing instructions or a report. Writer detaches themselves from their writing, adopting an impersonal tone.

EWS

english writing system. e.g. directionality, spelling, punctuation, conventions

Input Hypothesis

Krashen - 1982: acquisition occurs most effectively when learners are exposed to language that is just above their current level of competence. Reading texts as well as getting feedback allows children to be exposed to higher achieving texts, allowing them to improve.

feedback

Bangers-Drowns et al - 1991: feedback, especially when focused on specific aspects of writing significantly improves students’ writing performance. Feedback and input acts as a source of input that shapes students’ understanding of writing expectations and enhances their ability to revise and improve their drafts.

spelling - exploration

pre-letter writing on page, letters symbols and numbers may use repetition of familiar letters such as the letters in the child’s name. uses left to right directionality and uses random sight words.

spelling - semiphonetic

leaves random spaces in writing, uses a few known words in correct places, shows letter-sound correspondence. uses initial consonants and uses partial mapping of words.

spelling - phonetic

total mapping of letter-sound correspondence. vowels are omitted when not heard. writes quickly, spaces words correctly, letters are assigned strictly on the basis of sounds.

spelling - transitional

vowels appear in every syllable. The silent e pattern becomes fixed. inflection endings are used and moon letters sequences as well as the child moving towards visual spellings.